"මියන්මාරය" හි සංශෝධන අතර වෙනස්කම්

{{pp-move|small=yes}}

{{Infobox Country

|conventional_long_name = Union of Myanmar

|common_name = Burma

The country's culture, heavily influenced by neighbors, is based on [[Theravada]] [[Buddhism]] intertwined with [[Buddhism in Burma|local elements]]. Burma's diverse population has played a major role in defining its politics, history and demographics in modern times, and the country continues to struggle to mend its [[Internal conflict in Burma|ethnic tensions]]. The [[military]] has dominated government since [[Ne Win|General Ne Win]] led a [[coup]] in 1962 that toppled the civilian government of [[U Nu]]. Burma remains under the tight control of the military-led [[State Peace and Development Council]].

 

{{Main|Names of Burma}}

 

 

In 1989, the military government [[Geographical renaming|officially changed]] the English translations of many colonial-era names, including the name of the country to "Myanmar". This prompted one scholar to coin the term "Myanmarification" to refer to the top-down programme of political and cultural reform in the context of which the renaming was done. The renaming remains a contested issue.<ref name="Houtman">{{cite book |url=http://homepages.tesco.net/~ghoutman |title=Mental culture in Burmese crisis politics |last=Houtman |first=Gustaaf |year=1999 |series=ILCAA Study of Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa Monograph Series No. 33|publisher= Institute for the Study of Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa |pages=43–47 |isbn=978-4872977486}}</ref>

|accessdate = 1 October 2007}}</ref> The common pronunciation in Burmese is {{IPA-my|mjəmà|}}.

 

{{Main|Geography of Burma}}

 

In the north, the [[Hengduan Shan]] mountains form the border with China. [[Hkakabo Razi]], located in [[Kachin State]], at an elevation of {{convert|5881|m|ft|0}}, is the highest point in Burma.<ref>{{cite book | editor = Dr. Patrick Hesp et al. | year=2000 | title=Geographica's World Reference | publisher =Random House Australia | pages =738, 741}}</ref> Three mountain ranges, namely the Rakhine Yoma, the Bago Yoma, and the [[Shan Plateau]] exist within Burma, all of which run north-to-south from the [[Himalayas]].<ref name="myathan">{{cite book | first=Mya | last=Than | year=2005 | title=Myanmar in ASEAN: Regional Co-operation Experience | isbn=9-8123-0210-7 | publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies | location=Singapore}}</ref> The mountain chains divide Burma's three river systems, which are the [[Ayeyarwady River|Ayeyarwady]], [[Salween River|Salween (Thanlwin)]], and the [[Sittaung River|Sittaung]] rivers.<ref name="myatthein"/> The Ayeyarwady River, Burma's longest river, nearly {{convert|2170|km|mi|0}} long, flows into the [[Gulf of Martaban]]. Fertile plains exist in the valleys between the mountain chains.<ref name="myathan"/> The majority of Burma's population lives in the Ayeyarwady valley, which is situated between the Rakhine Yoma and the Shan Plateau.

 

{{Main|Climate of Burma}}

Much of the country lies between the [[Tropic of Cancer]] and the [[Equator]]. It lies in the [[monsoon]] region of Asia, with its coastal regions receiving over {{convert|5000|mm|in|1|abbr=on}} of rain annually. Annual [[Precipitation (meteorology)|rainfall]] in the [[river delta|delta]] region is approximately {{convert|2500|mm|in|1|abbr=on}}, while average annual rainfall in the Dry Zone, which is located in central Burma, is less than {{convert|1000|mm|in|1|abbr=on}}. Northern regions of the country are the coolest, with average temperatures of {{convert|21|C|F}}. Coastal and delta regions have mean temperatures of {{convert|32|C|F|1}}.<ref name="myatthein"/>

 

 

The country's slow economic growth has contributed to the preservation of much of its environment and [[ecosystem]]s. Forests, including dense tropical growth and valuable [[teak]] in lower Burma, cover over 49% of the country, including areas of [[acacia]], [[bamboo]], [[Hopea odorata|ironwood]] and [[michelia champaca]]. [[Coconut]] and [[Areca catechu|betel palm]] and [[rubber]] have been introduced. In the highlands of the north, [[oak]], [[pine]] and various [[rhododendron]]s cover much of the land.<ref name="BRMLIB">{{cite web |url=http://www.burmalibrary.org/reg.burma/archives/199909/msg00690.html |title=Myanmar's Forest Law and Rules |publisher=BurmaLibrary.org |accessdate=15 July 2006}}</ref> The lands along the coast support all varieties of [[tropical fruit]]s and once had large areas of [[Myanmar Coast mangroves|mangroves]] although much of this has disappeared. In the Dry Zone, vegetation is sparse and stunted.

 

 

{{Main|History of Burma}}

After the [[First Burmese War]], the [[Ava]] kingdom ceded the provinces of [[Manipur]], Tenassarim, and Arakan to the British.<ref name="thantmyintu"/> [[Yangon|Rangoon]] and southern Burma were incorporated into [[British India]] in 1853. All of Burma came directly or indirectly under [[British Raj|British India]] in 1886 after the [[Third Burmese War]] and the fall of Mandalay.<ref name="thantmyintu"/> Burma was administered as a province of [[British Raj|British India]] until 1937 when it became a separate, self-governing colony. The country became independent from the United Kingdom on 4 January 1948, as the ''"Union of Burma"''.

It became the ''"Socialist Republic of the Union of Burma"'' on 4 January 1974, before reverting to the ''"Union of Burma"'' on 23 September 1988. On 18 June 1989, the [[State Law and Order Restoration Council]] (SLORC) adopted the name ''"Union of Myanmar"'' for English transliteration. This controversial name change in English, while accepted in the UN and in many countries, is not recognised by opposition groups and by nations such as the United Kingdom and the United States.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/35910.htm|work=US Department of State|title= Profile: Union of Burma}}</ref>

 

{{Main|Early History of Burma}}

 

The [[Tibeto-Burman]] speaking [[Pyu]] arrived later in the 1st century BC, and established several city states – of which [[Pyay|Sri Ksetra]] was the most powerful – in central Ayeyarwady valley. The Mon and Pyu kingdoms were an active overland [[trade route]] between India and China. The Pyu kingdoms entered a period of rapid decline in early 9th century AD when the powerful kingdom of [[Kingdom of Nanzhao|Nanzhao]] (in present-day [[Yunnan]]) invaded the Ayeyarwady valley several times.

 

{{main|Pagan Kingdom}}

Tibeto-Burman speaking [[Bamar|Burmans]], or the [[Bamar]], began migrating to the Ayeyarwady valley from present-day [[Yunnan]]'s Nanzhao kingdom starting in 7th century AD. Filling the power gap left by the Pyu, the Burmans established a small kingdom centred in [[Bagan]] in 849. But it was not until the reign of King [[Anawrahta]] (1044–1077) that Bagan's influence expanded throughout much of present-day Burma.

Bagan's power slowly waned in 13th century. [[Kublai Khan]]'s [[Mongol]] forces [[Mongol invasion of Burma|invaded]] northern Burma starting in 1277, and sacked Bagan city itself in 1287. Bagan's over two century reign of Ayeyarwady valley and its periphery was over.

 

 

The Mongols could not stay for long in the searing Ayeyarwady valley. But the [[Shan people|Tai-Shan people]] from Yunnan who came down with the [[Mongol]]s fanned out to the [[Irrawaddy River|Ayeyarwady]] valley, Shan states, [[Laos]], [[Thailand|Siam]] and [[Assam]], and became powerful players in [[Southeast Asia]].

 

By the late-15th century, constant warfare had left Ava greatly weakened. Its peripheral areas became either independent or autonomous. In 1486, King [[Minkyinyo]] (1486–1531) of [[Taungoo]] broke away from Ava and established a small independent kingdom. In 1527, ''Mohnyin'' (Shan: Mong Yang) [[Shan people|Shans]] finally captured Ava, upsetting the delicate power balance that had existed for nearly two centuries. The Shans would rule Upper Burma until 1555.

 

{{main|Taungoo Dynasty}}

Reinforced by fleeing Burmans from Ava, the minor Burman [[Taungoo Dynasty|kingdom of Taungoo]] under its young, ambitious king [[Tabinshwehti]] (1531–1551) defeated the more powerful Mon kingdom at [[Bago, Burma|Bago]], reunifying all of [[Lower Burma]] by 1540. Tabinshwehti's successor King [[Bayinnaung]] (1551–1581) would go on to conquer [[Manipur]] (1556), [[Shan State|Shan states]] (1557), [[Chiang Mai]] (1557), [[Ayutthaya kingdom|Ayutthaya]] (1564, 1569) and [[Lan Xang]] (1574), bringing most of western South East Asia under his rule. Preparing to invade [[Rakhine]], a maritime power controlling the entire coastline west of Rakhine Yoma, up to [[Chittagong]] province in [[Bengal]].

The Burmese under King [[Anaukpetlun]] (1605–1628) regrouped and defeated the Portuguese in 1611. Anaukpetlun reestablished a smaller reconstituted kingdom based in Ava covering Upper Burma, Lower Burma and Shan states (but without Rakhine or Taninthayi). After the reign of King Thalun (1629–1648), who rebuilt the war-torn country, the kingdom experienced a slow and steady decline for the next 100 years. The Mons successfully rebelled starting in 1740 with French help and [[Thailand|Siamese]] encouragement, broke away Lower Burma by 1747, and finally put an end to the House of Taungoo in 1752 when they took [[Ava]].

 

{{main|Konbaung Dynasty}}

 

King [[Alaungpaya]] (1752–1760), established the [[Konbaung Dynasty]] in [[Shwebo]] in 1752.<ref>{{cite book| url=http://dlxs.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=sea;cc=sea;view=toc;subview=short;idno=sea328| title=An Account of An Embassy to the Kingdom of Ava by Michael Symes,1795}}</ref> He founded [[Yangon]] in 1755. By his death in 1760, Alaungpaya had reunified the country. In 1767, King [[Hsinbyushin]] (1763–1777) sacked [[Ayutthaya kingdom|Ayutthya]]. The [[Qing Dynasty]] of China invaded four times from 1765 to 1769 without success. The Chinese invasions allowed the new Siamese kingdom based in Bangkok to repel the Burmese out of [[Thailand|Siam]] by the late 1770s.

King [[Mindon Min|Mindon]] (1853–1878) founded [[Mandalay]] in 1859 and made it his capital. He skilfully navigated the growing threats posed by the competing interests of Britain and France. In the process, Mindon had to renounce [[Kayah State|Kayah]] (Karenni) states in 1875. His successor, King [[Thibaw Min|Thibaw]] (1878–1885), was largely ineffectual. In 1885, the British, alarmed by the French conquest of neighbouring [[Laos]], occupied [[Upper Burma]]. The [[Third Anglo-Burmese War]] (1885) lasted a mere one month insofar as capturing the capital [[Mandalay]] was concerned. The [[Burmese royal family]] was exiled to [[Ratnagiri]], India. British forces spent at least another four years pacifying the country – not only in the Burmese heartland but also in the Shan, [[Chin people|Chin]] and [[Kachin]] hill areas. By some accounts, minor insurrections did not end until 1896.

 

{{main|British rule in Burma}}

The British conquest of Burma began in 1824 in response to a Burmese attempt to invade India. By 1886, and after two further wars, Britain had incorporated the entire country into the [[British Raj]]. Burma was administered as a province of [[British India]] until 1937 when it became a separate, self-governing colony. To stimulate trade and facilitate changes, the British brought in [[Non-resident Indian and Person of Indian Origin|Indians]] and [[Overseas Chinese|Chinese]], who quickly displaced the Burmese in urban areas. To this day [[Rangoon]] and [[Mandalay]] have large [[ethnic groups of India|ethnic Indian]] populations. Railways and schools were built, as well as a large number of prisons, including the infamous [[Insein Prison]], then and now used for [[political prisoner]]s. Burmese resentment was strong and was vented in violent riots that paralysed Yangon on occasion all the way until the 1930s.<ref>{{cite book | first=Maurice | last=Collis | year=1945 | title=Trials in Burma}}</ref>

 

 

Much of the discontent was caused by a disrespect for [[Burmese culture]] and traditions, for example, what the British termed the Shoe Question: the colonisers' refusal to remove their shoes upon entering Buddhist temples or other holy places. In October 1919, [[Eindawya Pagoda]] in Mandalay was the scene of violence when tempers flared after scandalised Buddhist monks attempted to physically expel a group of shoe-wearing British visitors. The leader of the monks was later sentenced to life imprisonment for attempted murder. Such incidents inspired the Burmese resistance to use [[Buddhism]] as a rallying point for their cause. Buddhist monks became the vanguards of the independence movement, and many died while protesting. One monk-turned-martyr was [[U Wisara]], who died in prison after a 166-day hunger strike to protest a rule that forbade him from wearing his Buddhist robes while imprisoned.<ref>{{cite book | first=Heinz | last=Bechert | year=1984 | title=The World of Buddhism-Buddhist Monks and Nuns in Society and Culture | isbn=978-0871969828 | publisher=Facts on File | location=New York, N.Y.}}</ref>

 

On 1 April 1937, Burma became a separately administered territory, independent of the Indian administration. The vote for keeping Burma in India, or as a separate colony "khwe-yay-twe-yay" divided the populace, and laid the ground work for the insurgencies to come after independence. In the 1940s, the [[Thirty Comrades]], commanded by [[Aung San]], founded the [[Burma Independence Army]]. The Thirty Comrades received training in Japan.<ref name="aungsan">{{cite book | first=Gustaaf | last=Houtman | year=1999 | title=Mental Culture in Burmese Crisis Politics: Aung San Suu Kyi and the National League for Democracy | isbn=4-87297-748-3 | publisher=Tokyo University of Foreign Studies, Institute for the Study of Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa | location=Tokyo}}</ref>

During World War II, Burma became a major front-line in the [[South-East Asian Theatre of World War II|Southeast Asian Theatre]]. The British administration collapsed ahead of the advancing Japanese troops, jails and asylums were opened and Rangoon was deserted except for the many [[Anglo-Burmese people|Anglo-Burmese]] and Indians who remained at their posts. A stream of some 300,000 refugees fled across the jungles into India; known as 'The Trek', all but 30,000 of those 300,000 arrived in India. Initially the Japanese-led [[Burma Campaign]] succeeded and the British were expelled from most of Burma, but the British counter-attacked using primarily troops of the [[British Indian Army]]. By July 1945, the British had retaken the country.

 

Although many Burmese fought initially for the Japanese, some Burmese, mostly from the ethnic minorities, also served in the British Burma Army.<ref>{{cite book | first=Ian | last=Fellowes-Gordon | year=1971 | title=The Battle For Naw Seng's Kingdom: General Stilwel}}</ref> In 1943, the Chin Levies and [[Kachin Levies]] were formed in the border districts of Burma still under British administration. The Burma Rifles fought as part of the [[Chindit]]s under [[Orde Wingate|General Orde Wingate]] from 1943 to 1945. Later in the war, the Americans created [[OSS Detachment 101|American-Kachin Rangers]] who also fought against the Japanese. Many others fought with the British [[Special Operations Executive]]. The [[Burma Independence Army]] under the command of [[Aung San]] and the Arakan National Army fought with the Japanese from 1942–1944, but switched allegiance to the Allied side in 1945.

 

 

In 1947, Aung San became Deputy Chairman of the Executive Council of Burma, a transitional government. But in July 1947, political rivals assassinated [[Aung San]] and several cabinet members.<ref name="aungsan"/>

 

On 4 January 1948, the nation became an independent [[republic]], named the ''Union of Burma'', with [[Sao Shwe Thaik]] as its first President and [[U Nu]] as its first Prime Minister. Unlike most other former British colonies and overseas territories, it did not become a member of the [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]]. A [[bicameral]] [[parliament]] was formed, consisting of a [[Chamber of Deputies]] and a [[Chamber of Nationalities]],<ref name="1947con">{{cite web|url=http://english.dvb.no/e_docs/511947_con.htm |title=The Constitution of the Union of Burma |accessdate=7 July 2006 |year=1947 |publisher=DVB}}{{Dead link|date=July 2009}}</ref> and [[Multi-party system|multi-party]] elections were held in [[Burmese general election, 1951–1952|1951–1952]], [[Burmese general election, 1956|1956]] and [[Burmese general election, 1960|1960]].

 

In 1961, [[U Thant]], then the Union of Burma's Permanent Representative to the United Nations and former Secretary to the Prime Minister, was elected [[Secretary-General of the United Nations]]; he was the first non-Westerner to head any international organisation and would serve as UN Secretary-General for ten years.<ref name="az">{{cite web|url=http://www.irrawaddy.org/article.php?art_id=7610|author=Aung Zaw|title=Can Another Asian Fill U Thant's Shoes?|work=[[The Irrawaddy]] September 2006|accessdate=12 September 2006}}</ref> Among the Burmese to work at the UN when he was Secretary-General was a young [[Aung San Suu Kyi]], who went on to become winner of the 1991 [[Nobel Peace Prize]].

 

{{See also|Military of Burma}}

 

 

Between 1974 and 1988, Burma was effectively ruled by Ne Win through the [[Burma Socialist Programme Party]] (BSPP),<ref name="christinafink">{{cite book | first=Christina | last=Fink | year=2001 | title=Living Silence:Burma under Military Rule | isbn=1-8564-9926-X | publisher=White Lotus | location=Bankok}}</ref> which from 1964 until 1988 was the sole political party. During this period, Burma became one of the world's most impoverished countries. The Burmese Way to Socialism<ref name="ruin">{{cite news|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2007/sep/28/burma.uk|title=The Burma road to ruin|publisher=The Guardian | location=London | first=Mark | last=Tallentire | date=28 September 2007 | accessdate=27 April 2010}}</ref> combined [[Soviet]]-style nationalisation and [[central planning]] with the governmental implementation of superstitious beliefs.{{Citation needed|date=July 2010}} Criticism was scathing, such as an article published in a February 1974 issue of ''[[Newsweek]]'' magazine describing the Burmese Way to Socialism as 'an amalgam of Buddhist and Marxist illogic'.<ref name="ms">{{cite book|author=Martin Smith|title=Burma – Insurgency and the Politics of Ethnicity|year=1991|publisher=Zed Books|location=London and New Jersey|pages=124,200,20,130}}</ref>

 

Hundreds of thousands of [[Rohingya]] Muslims fled Burma and many refugees inundated neighbouring Bangladesh including 200,000 in 1978 as a result of the [[King Dragon operation in Arakan]].<ref>[http://ipsnews.net/news.asp?idnews=45850 Burma's Muslim Rohingyas – The New Boat People ]. Marwaan Macan-Markar. IPS.</ref>

In 1988, unrest over economic mismanagement and political oppression by the government led to widespread pro-democracy demonstrations throughout the country known as the [[8888 Uprising]]. Security forces killed thousands of demonstrators, and General [[Saw Maung]] staged a coup d'état and formed the [[State Law and Order Restoration Council]] (SLORC). In 1989, SLORC declared [[martial law]] after widespread protests. The military government finalised plans for People's Assembly elections on 31 May 1989.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ibiblio.org/obl/docs/pyithu_hluttaw_election_law.htm |title=PYITHU HLUTTAW ELECTION LAW |accessdate=11 July 2006 |date=31 May 1989 |work=State Law and Order Restoration Council |publisher=iBiblio.org}}</ref> SLORC changed the country's official English name from the "Socialist Republic of the Union of Burma" to the "Union of Myanmar" in 1989.

 

 

The [[2007 Burmese anti-government protests]] were a series of anti-government protests that started in Burma on 15 August 2007. The immediate cause of the protests was mainly the unannounced decision of the ruling [[military junta|junta]], the State Peace and Development Council, to remove [[fuel subsidies]] which caused the price of [[diesel fuel|diesel]] and [[gasoline|petrol]] to suddenly rise as much as double, and the price of [[compressed natural gas]] for buses to increase fivefold in less than a week.<ref name="Fuel">[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/6947251.stm Burma leaders double fuel prices].</ref> The protest demonstrations were at first dealt with quickly and harshly by the junta, with dozens of protesters arrested and detained. Starting 18 September, the protests were led by thousands of [[Bhikkhu|Buddhist monks]], and those protests were allowed to proceed until a renewed government crackdown on 26 September.<ref name="Monks">[http://english.aljazeera.net/NR/exeres/4081D23F-F1A4-46AF-BA50-D47FA2B7A4AE.htm UN envoy warns of Myanmar crisis].</ref> During the crack-down, there were rumours of disagreement within the Burmese armed forces, but none were confirmed. Some news reports referred to the protests as the Saffron Revolution.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/asia/article2521951.ece|title=Military junta threatens monks in Burma | location=London | work=The Times | date=24 September 2007 | accessdate=27 April 2010 | first1=Jenny | last1=Booth}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.novinite.com/view_news.php?id=85644|title=100,000 Protestors Flood Streets of Rangoon in "Saffron Revolution"}}</ref>

 

During the 2007 anti-government protests a significant role was played by [[Aung San Suu Kyi]], the leader of the opposition to the Burmese military government. Aung San Suu Kyi had been under strict house arrest since 1989. In September 2007, hundreds of monks paid respects to her at the gate of her home, which was the first time in four years that people were able to see her in public. She was then given a second public appearance on 29 September, when she was allowed to leave house arrest briefly and meet with a UN envoy trying to persuade the junta to ease its crackdown against a pro-democracy uprising, to which the Myanmar government reluctantly agreed.

In early August 2009, a conflict known as the [[August 2009 Kokang incident|Kokang incident]] broke out in [[Shan State]] in northern Burma. For several weeks, junta troops fought against ethnic minorities including the [[Kokang people|Han Chinese]],<ref>[http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/32596296/ns/world_news-asiapacific/ Fighting forces up to 30,000 to flee Myanmar]. Msnbc.com. 28 August 2009.</ref> [[Va people|Va]], and [[Jingpo|Kachin]].<ref name=BangkokPost>{{cite web | url=http://www.bangkokpost.com/news/asia/152806/more-fighting-feared-as-thousands-flee-burma | title=More fighting feared as thousands flee Burma | publisher=[[Bangkok Post]] | author=[[Agence France-Presse]] | date=27 August 2009 | accessdate=28 August 2009}}</ref><ref name=NYTrefugees>{{cite news | work=The New York Times | last=Fuller | first=Thomas | date=28 August 2009 | accessdate=28 August 2009 | url=http://www.nytimes.com/2009/08/29/world/asia/29myanmar.html?ref=world | title=Refugees Flee to China as Fighting Breaks Out in Myanmar}}</ref> From August 8–12, the first days of the conflict, as many as 10,000 Burmese civilians fled to [[Yunnan]] province in neighbouring China.<ref name=BangkokPost/><ref name=NYTrefugees/><ref name=BBCrefugees>{{cite news | work=BBC News | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/8223430.stm | title='Thousands Flee Burma Violence' | date=26 August 2009 | accessdate=28 August 2009}}</ref>

 

 

{{Main|Politics of Burma}}

Burma is governed by a [[military junta]] with the head of state being [[General|Senior General]] [[Than Shwe]], who holds the posts of "Chairman of the [[State Peace and Development Council]]" and "Commander in Chief of the Defence Services" as well as the Minister of Defence. General [[Khin Nyunt]] was [[prime minister]] until 19 October 2004, when he was replaced by [[General]] [[Soe Win]], after the purge of [[Military Intelligence]] sections within the [[Tatmadaw|Myanmar armed forces]]. The Prime Minister is General [[Thein Sein]], who took over upon the death of General Soe Win on 2 October 2007. The majority of ministry and cabinet posts are held by military officers, with the exceptions being the Ministry of Health, the Ministry of Education, the Ministry of Labour, and the Ministry of National Planning and Economic Development, posts which are held by civilians.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odci.gov/cia/publications/chiefs/chiefs29.html |title=Chiefs of State and Cabinet Members of Foreign Governments: Burma |accessdate=11 July 2006 |date=2 June 2006 |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency}}</ref><!--[[File:RECO0009.jpg|thumb|right|The First and the last meeting]]-->

 

Major political parties in the country are the [[National League for Democracy]] and the [[Shan Nationalities League for Democracy]], although their activities are heavily regulated and suppressed by the military government. Many other parties, often representing ethnic minorities, exist.{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}} The military government allows little room for political organisations and has outlawed many political parties and underground student organisations. The military supported the [[National Unity Party (Burma)|National Unity Party]] in the 1990 elections and, more recently, an organisation named the [[Union Solidarity and Development Association]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nationalreview.com/comment/comment-mccain061103.asp |title= Crisis in Rangoon |accessdate=14 July 2006 |last=McCain |first=John | authorlink=John McCain |date=11 May 2003 |publisher=National Review Online}}</ref>

 

In 1988, the army violently repressed protests against economic mismanagement and political oppression. On 8 August 1988, the military opened fire on demonstrators in what is known as [[8888 Uprising]] and imposed martial law. However, the 1988 protests paved way for the 1990 People's Assembly elections. The election results were subsequently annulled by [[Saw Maung|Senior General Saw Maung]]'s government. The [[National League for Democracy]], led by [[Aung San Suu Kyi]], won over 60% of the vote and over 80% of parliamentary seats in the 1990 election, the first held in 30 years. The military-backed [[National Unity Party (Burma)|National Unity Party]] won less than 2% of the seats.

Burma has a high level of [[Political corruption|corruption]], and ranks 178th out of 180 countries worldwide according to [[Transparency International]], which publishes its own [[Corruption Perceptions Index]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.transparency.org/news_room/in_focus/2008/cpi2008/cpi_2008_table |title=cpi 2008 table /cpi2008/2008/in focus/news room |publisher=Transparency.org |date= |accessdate=17 April 2010}}</ref>

 

{{Main|Human rights in Burma}}

{{See|Internal conflict in Burma|Health in Burma|HIV/AIDS in Burma}}

Burma's government spends the least percentage of its GDP on health care of any country in the world, and international donor organisations give less to Burma, per capita, than any other country except India.<ref name=autogenerated1>http://www.msf.org/source/countries/asia/myanmar/2008/PreventableFate/PreventableFatereport.pdf</ref> According to the report named "Preventable Fate", published by [[Doctors without Borders]], 25,000 Burmese AIDS patients died in 2007, deaths that could largely have been prevented by Anti Retroviral Therapy drugs and proper treatment.<ref name=autogenerated1 /> {{See|Health in Burma|HIV/AIDS in Burma}}

 

{{Main|Administrative divisions of Burma}}

 

 

Below are the number of districts, townships, cities/towns, wards, village Groups and villages in each divisions and states of Burma as of 31 December 2001:<ref>''List of Districts, Townships, Cities/Towns, Wards, Village Groups and Villages in Union of Myanmar'' published by Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of Union of Myanmar on 31 December 2001</ref>

|}

 

{{Main|Foreign relations of Burma|Military of Burma}}

The country's [[foreign policy|foreign relations]], particularly with Western nations, have been strained. The United States has placed a ban on new investments by U.S. firms, an import ban, and an arms embargo on the Union of Myanmar, as well as frozen military assets in the United States because of the military regime's ongoing human rights abuses, the ongoing detention of Nobel Peace Prize recipient [[Aung San Suu Kyi]], and refusal to honour the election results of the 1990 People's Assembly election.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.congress.gov/cgi-bin/bdquery/z?d108:SN01182:@@@L&summ2=m& | title=Burma Freedom and Democracy Act of 2003 | publisher=United States Library of Congress |accessdate=4 February 2007 |date=4 June 2003}}</ref> Similarly, the European Union has placed sanctions on Burma, including an arms embargo, cessation of [[trade preference]]s, and suspension of all aid with the exception of [[humanitarian aid]].<ref name="EU">{{cite web|url=http://ec.europa.eu/comm/external_relations/myanmar/intro/index.htm |title= The EU's relations with Burma / Myanmar |accessdate=13 July 2006 |publisher=European Union}}</ref> U.S. and European government sanctions against the military government, coupled with boycotts and other direct pressure on corporations by supporters of the democracy movement, have resulted in the withdrawal from the country of most U.S. and many European companies. However, several Western companies remain due to loopholes in the sanctions{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}}.

The country is a corner of the [[Golden Triangle (Southeast Asia)|Golden Triangle]] of [[opium]] production. In 1996 the [[United States Embassy]] in Rangoon released a "Country Commercial Guide", which states "Exports of opiates alone appear to be worth about as much as all legal exports." It goes on to say that investments in infrastructure and hotels are coming from major opiate-growing and opiate-exporting organisations and from those with close ties to these organisations.<ref name='BurmaNation'>{{cite news | first=Dennis | last=Bernstein | coauthors= Leslie Kean | title=People of the Opiate – Burma's dictatorship of drugs | date=16 January 1996 | publisher= | url =http://nick.assumption.edu/WebVAX/Nation/Bernstein16Dec96.html | work =[[The Nation]] | pages = | accessdate = 6 July 2008 | language = }}</ref> A four-year investigation concluded that Burma's national company [[Myanma Oil and Gas Enterprise]] (MOGE) was "the main channel for laundering the revenues of [[heroin]] produced and exported under the control of the [[Burmese army]]." The main player in the country's drug market is the [[United Wa State Army]], ethnic fighters who control areas along the country's eastern border with Thailand, part of the infamous Golden Triangle. The [[United Wa State Army|Wa army]], an ally of Burma's ruling military junta, was once the militant arm of the Beijing-backed [[Burmese Communist Party]]. Burma has been a significant cog in the transnational drug trade since World War II.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.worldnetdaily.com/news/article.asp?ARTICLE_ID=26063 |title=Afghan war lifts Burma's opium trade |work=[[WorldNetDaily]] |date=16 January 2002 |author=LoBaido, Anthony C |publisher=WorldNetDaily.com Inc}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gluckman.com/BurmaBorder.html |title=Where has all the opium gone? |author=Gluckman, Ron |publisher=Ron Gluckman}}</ref> The land area devoted to opium production increased 29% in 2007. A United Nations report cites corruption, poverty and a lack of government control as causes for the jump.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.voanews.com/english/archive/2007-10/2007-10-12-voa10.cfm?CFID=156804067&CFTOKEN=33443232 |title=Opium Cultivation Blossoms in Burma |first=Chad |last=Bouchard |work=[[Voice of America]] |date=12 October 2007}}</ref>

 

{{Main|Economy of Burma|List of Banks in Myanmar}}

{{See|Agriculture in Burma|Golden Triangle (Southeast Asia)|Tourism in Burma|Transport in Burma}}

 

The country is one of the poorest nations in Southeast Asia, suffering from decades of stagnation, mismanagement and isolation. Burma's GDP grows at an average rate of 2.9% annually – the lowest rate of economic growth in the Greater [[Mekong]] Subregion.<ref name="CIA"/>

In recent years, both China and India have attempted to strengthen ties with the government for economic benefit. Many nations, including the United States and Canada, and the European Union, have imposed investment and trade sanctions on Burma. The United States has banned all imports from Burma.<ref name="turnell"/> Foreign investment comes primarily from People's Republic of China, [[Singapore]], South Korea, India, and [[Thailand]].<ref>{{cite news | first =David | last =Fullbrook | url =http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Southeast_Asia/FK04Ae03.html | title =So long US, hello China, India | publisher =Asia Times |date=4 November 2004 | accessdate =14 July 2006}}</ref>

 

 

The major agricultural product is rice which covers about 60% of the country's total cultivated land area. Rice accounts for 97% of total food grain production by weight. Through collaboration with the International Rice Research Institute ([[IRRI]]), 52 modern [[rice]] varieties were released in the country between 1966 and 1997, helping increase national rice production to 14 million tons in 1987 and to 19 million tons in 1996. By 1988, modern varieties were planted on half of the country's ricelands, including 98 percent of the irrigated areas.<ref>{{PDFlink|[http://www.irri.org/media/facts/pdfs/myanmar.pdf Myanmar and IRRI]|21.2&nbsp;KB}}, Facts About Cooperation, International Rice Research Institute. Retrieved on 25 September 2007.</ref>

The Union of Myanmar's rulers depend on sales of precious stones such as [[sapphires]], [[pearls]] and [[jade]] to fund their regime. [[Rubies]] are the biggest earner; 90% of the world's [[rubies]] come from the country, whose red stones are prized for their purity and [[hue]]. [[Thailand]] buys the majority of the country's [[Gemstone|gems]]. Burma's "''Valley of Rubies''", the mountainous [[Mogok Township|Mogok]] area, {{convert|200|km|mi|abbr=on}} north of [[Mandalay]], is noted for its rare pigeon's blood rubies and blue [[sapphires]].<ref>[http://www.uvm.edu/envnr/gemecology/index.html Gems of Burma and their Environmental Impact].</ref> Many U.S. and European jewellery companies, including Bulgari, Tiffany, and Cartier, refuse to import these stones based on reports of deplorable working conditions in the mines. Human Rights Watch has encouraged a complete ban on the purchase of Burmese gems based on these reports and because nearly all profits go to the ruling junta, as the majority of mining activity in the country is government-run.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.hrw.org/en/news/2007/11/11/burma-gem-trade-bolsters-military-regime-fuels-atrocities |title=Burma: Gem Trade Bolsters Military Regime, Fuels Atrocities |publisher=Human Rights Watch |date=11 November 2007}}</ref>

 

 

Since 1992, the government has encouraged [[Tourism in Burma|tourism in the country]]. However, fewer than 750,000 tourists enter the country annually.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.channelviewpublications.net/cit/006/0097/cit0060097.pdf |format=PDF |title=The Politics of Tourism in Myanmar |accessdate=8 July 2006|last=Henderson |first=Joan C. |publisher=[[Nanyang Technological University]]}}</ref> [[Aung San Suu Kyi]] has requested that international tourists not visit Burma. The junta's forced labour programmes were focused around tourist destinations which have been heavily criticised for their human rights records. Burma's Minister of Hotels and Tourism [[Maj-Gen Saw Lwin]] has stated that the government receives a significant percentage of the income of private sector tourism services.<ref>{{cite web|author=tayza thuria |url=http://www.tayzathuria.org.uk/bd/2006/12/24/re.htm |title=Burma Digest |publisher=Tayzathuria.org.uk |date=24 December 2006 |accessdate=17 April 2010}}</ref> Much of the country is completely off-limits to tourists, and the military very tightly controls interactions between foreigners and the people of Burma, particularly the border regions.<ref>{{cite web | title=Cycling Burma (Myanmar) | url=http://7ride.com/rides/myanmar-%28burma%29-2006.aspx | work=Cycling Burma (Myanmar) | date=1900-1-0 | accessdate=2010-05-21}}</ref> They are not to discuss politics with foreigners, under penalty of imprisonment, and in 2001, the Myanmar Tourism Promotion Board issued an order for local officials to protect tourists and limit "unnecessary contact" between foreigners and ordinary Burmese people.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.burmacampaign.org.uk/action_holiday.html |title=The Tourism Campaign – Campaigns – The Burma Campaign UK |publisher=Burmacampaign.org.uk |date= |accessdate=17 April 2010}}</ref>

The M9 gas field in Burma is expected to go online in 2012.<ref name="atimes.com">{{cite web|author=Jul 10, 2008 |url=http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Southeast_Asia/JG10Ae01.html |title=Asia Times Online :: Southeast Asia news and business from Indonesia, Philippines, Thailand, Malaysia and Vietnam |publisher=Atimes.com |date=10 July 2008 |accessdate=17 April 2010}}</ref>

 

{{Main|Burmese units of measurement}}

Burma is one of three countries that still predominately uses a non-metric system of measure, according to the CIA Factbook.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/appendix/print_appendix-g.html |title=The World Factbook, Appendix G: Weights and Measures |year=2010 |work=Web Pages |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency |accessdate=10 May 2010}}</ref> The common units of measure are unique to Burma but the Government web pages use both Imperial units<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.moai.gov.mm/index.php?option=com_content&view=category&layout=blog&id=16&Itemid=2 |title=Ministry of Agriculture and Information |date=2009-2010 |work=Web Page |publisher=Myanmar Agriculture |accessdate=10 May 2010}}</ref> and metric units.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mofa.gov.mm/aboutmyanmar/geography.html |title=About Myanmar : Geography |year=2009 |work=Web Page |publisher=Ministry of Foreign Affairs |accessdate=10 May 2010}}</ref>

 

{{Main|Demographics of Burma|Ethnic groups in Burma}}

 

Burma has a population of about 56 million.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unescap.org/esid/psis/population/popin/profiles/myn.asp |title= POPULATION AND SOCIAL INTEGRATION SECTION (PSIS) |publisher=UN Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific }}</ref> Population figures are rough estimates because the last partial census, conducted by the Ministry of Home and Religious Affairs under the control of the military junta, was taken in 1983.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ibiblio.org/obl/docs/Considered_responses-2.pdf | title=Conflict and Displacement in Karenni: The Need for Considered Responses |accessdate=13 July 2006 |year=2000 | month=May | format=PDF |publisher=Burma Ethnic Research Group}}</ref> No trustworthy nationwide census has been taken in Burma since 1931. There are over 600,000 registered [[migrant worker]]s from Burma in [[Thailand]], and millions more work illegally. Burmese migrant workers account for 80% of Thailand's migrant workers.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://web.amnesty.org/library/index/ENGASA390012005 |title=Thailand: The Plight of Burmese Migrant Workers |accessdate=13 July 2006 |date=8 June 2006 |publisher=Amnesty International}}</ref> Burma has a [[population density]] of {{PD km2 to sq mi|75|precision=0|spell=UK}}, one of the lowest in [[Southeast Asia]]. Refugee camps exist along Indian, Bangladeshi and Thai borders while several thousand are in [[Malaysia]]. Conservative estimates state that there are over 295,800 refugees from Burma, with the majority being [[Rohingya]], [[Kayah State|Kayin]], and [[Karen people|Karenni]] and are principally located along the Thai-Burma border.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unhcr.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/publ/opendoc.pdf?tbl=PUBL&id=449676844 | title=Myanmar Refugees in South East Asia |accessdate=13 July 2006 |year=2006 | month=April | format=PDF |publisher=UNHCR}}</ref> There are nine permanent refugee camps along the Thai-Burma border, most of which were established in the mid-1980s. The refugee camps are under the care of the [http://www.tbbc.org/ Thai-Burma Border Consortium (TBBC)].

 

{{Main|Ethnic groups of Burma}}

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Burma is home to four major linguistic families: [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]], [[Kradai languages|Kradai]], [[Austro-Asiatic languages|Austro-Asiatic]], and [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=MM |title=Languages of Myanmar |accessdate=14 July 2006 |last=Gordon |first=Raymond G., Jr. |year=2005 |publisher=SIL International}}</ref> Sino-Tibetan languages are most widely spoken. They include [[Burmese language|Burmese]], [[Karen people|Karen]], [[Jingpo|Kachin]], [[Chin people|Chin]], and Chinese. The primary Kradai language is [[Shan language|Shan]]. [[Mon language|Mon]], [[Palaung]], and [[Va people|Wa]] are the major [[Austroasiatic]] languages spoken in Burma. The two major Indo-European languages are [[Pāli|Pali]], the liturgical language of Theravada Buddhism, and English.<ref name="ethno">{{cite web|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/show_family.asp?subid=90150 |title=Language Family Trees: Sino-Tibetan |accessdate=9 July 2006 |last=Gordon |first=Raymond G., Jr. |year=2005 |work=Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Fifteenth edition |publisher=SIL International}}</ref>

89% of the country's population are Buddhist, according to a report on ABC World News Tonight in May 2008{{Citation needed|date=July 2010}}.

 

{{Main|Culture of Burma}}

 

A diverse range of indigenous cultures exist in Burma, the majority culture is primarily [[Buddhism in Burma|Buddhist]] and [[Bamar]]. Bamar culture has been influenced by the cultures of neighbouring countries. This is manifested in its language, cuisine, music, dance and theatre. The arts, particularly literature, have historically been influenced by the local form of [[Theravada]] [[Buddhism]]. Considered the national epic of Burma, the ''[[Yama Zatdaw]]'', an adaptation of ''[[Ramayana]]'', has been influenced greatly by [[Thailand|Thai]], [[Mon people|Mon]], and [[Republic of India|Indian]] versions of the play.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.goldenlandpages.com/hotspots/rama/rama.htm |title=Ramayana in Myanmar's heart |accessdate=13 July 2006 |date=13 September 2003 |publisher=Goldenland Pages}}</ref> Buddhism is practised along with [[nat (spirit)|nat worship]] which involves elaborate rituals to propitiate one from a pantheon of 37 nats.<ref>{{cite book | first=R.C. | last=Temple| year=1906 | title=The Thirty-seven Nats-A Phase of Spirit-Worship prevailing in Burma}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://myanmartravelinformation.com/mti-myanmar-religion/nats.htm|title=The Worshipping of Nats – The Special Festival of Mount Popa}}</ref>

 

 

British colonial rule also introduced Western elements of culture to Burma. Burma's educational system is modelled after that of the United Kingdom. Colonial architectural influences are most evident in major cities such as [[Yangon]].<ref>{{cite news | first =Steven | last =Martin | url =http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/3578993.stm | title =Burma maintains bygone buildings | publisher =BBC News |date= March 2004 | accessdate =9 July 2006 }}</ref> Many ethnic minorities, particularly the [[Karen people|Karen]] in the southeast, and the [[Kachin]] and [[Chin (people)]] who populate the north and north-east, practice [[Christianity]].<ref>{{cite book|url=http://www.archive.org/details/TheSilkenEast|title=The Silken East – A Record of Life and Travel in Burma|first=V. C.|last=Scott O'Connor|year=1904|publisher=Kiscadale|location= Scotland 1993|page=32}}</ref> According to CIA World Factbook, the Burman population is 68%, and the Ethnic groups comprise of 32%. However, the exiled leaders and organisations claims that Ethnic population is 40% which is implicitly contrasted with CIA report (official U.S report).

 

 

{{Main|Languages of Burma}}

[[Burmese language|Burmese]], the mother tongue of the Bamar and official language of Burma, is related to [[Tibetan language|Tibetan]] and to the [[Chinese language]]s.<ref name="ethno"/> It is written in a [[Burmese script|script]] consisting of circular and semi-circular letters, which were adapted from the [[Mon language|Mon script]], which in turn was developed from a southern Indian script in the 8th century. The earliest known inscriptions in the Burmese script date from the 11th century. It is also used to write [[Pāli|Pali]], the sacred language of [[Theravada Buddhism]], as well as several ethnic minority languages, including Shan, several Karen dialects, and Kayah (Karenni), with the addition of specialised characters and [[diacritic]]s for each language.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://lwinmoe.friendsofburma.org/doc/myanmar_extension.pdf |title=Proposal for encoding characters for Myanmar minority languages in the UCS |accessdate=9 July 2006 |date=2 April 2006 |format=PDF |publisher=International Organization for Standardization}}</ref> The Burmese language incorporates widespread usage of [[honorific]]s and is age-oriented.<ref name="Myam-ma" /> Burmese society has traditionally stressed the importance of education. In villages, secular schooling often takes place in [[monastery|monasteries]]. [[Secondary education|Secondary]] and [[tertiary education]] take place at government schools.

 

{{Main|Religion in Burma|Buddhism in Burma|Hinduism in Burma|Christianity in Burma|Islam in Burma|History of the Jews in Burma}}

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89% of the population embraces [[Buddhism]] (mostly [[Theravada]]). Other religions are practiced largely without obstruction, with the notable exception of some ethnic minorities such as the Muslim [[Rohingya people]], who have continued to have their citizenship status denied and therefore do not have access to education, and Christians in Chin State.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2007/90131.htm |title=Burma-International Religious Freedom Report 2007 |publisher=U.S. Department of State}}</ref> Four percent of the population practices [[Christianity]]; 4 percent, [[Islam]]; 1 percent, traditional [[animism|animistic]] beliefs; and 2 percent follow other religions, including [[Mahayana Buddhism]], [[Hinduism]], [[Chinese religions]] and the [[Bahá'í Faith|Bahá'í religion]].<ref>[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/bm.html#People CIA Factbook – Burma]</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2007/90131.htm |title=International Religious Freedom Report 2007 – Burma |publisher=State.gov |date= |accessdate=17 April 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/35910.htm |title=Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs – Background Note: Burma |publisher=State.gov |date= |accessdate=17 April 2010}}</ref> However, according to a [[U.S. State Department]]'s 2006 international religious freedom report, official statistics underestimate the non-Buddhist population which could be as high as 30%. Muslim leaders estimated that approximately 20 percent of the population was Muslim. A tiny Jewish community in Rangoon had a synagogue but no resident rabbi to conduct services.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71335.htm |title=Burma—International Religious Freedom Report 2006 |publisher=U.S. Department of State |date=15 September 2006 |accessdate=25 September 2007}}</ref>

 

{{Main|Education in Burma}}

 

The educational system of Burma is operated by the government Ministry of Education. Universities and professional institutes from upper Burma and lower Burma are run by two separate entities, the Department of Higher Education of Upper Burma and the Department of Higher Education of Lower Burma. Headquarters are based in Yangon and Mandalay respectively. The education system is based on the United Kingdom's system, due to nearly a century of British and Christian presences in Burma. Nearly all schools are government-operated, but there has been a recent increase in privately funded English language schools. Schooling is compulsory until the end of elementary school, probably about 9 years old, while the compulsory schooling age is 15 or 16 at international level.

{{Clear}}

 

{{Main|Media of Burma}}

 

Burma has figured in several motion pictures, such as ''[[Beyond Rangoon]]'', starring [[Patricia Arquette]], ''[[Rambo IV]]'', starring [[Sylvester Stallone]] and ''[[Objective, Burma!]]'', nominated for an Academy Award and starring [[Errol Flynn]]. Burma was also featured in the hit show ''[[Seinfeld]]''. Burma is the primary subject of a 2007 graphic novel titled ''[[Chroniques Birmanes]]'' by [[Québécois]] author and animator, [[Guy Delisle]]. The graphic novel was translated into English under the title ''[[Burma Chronicles]]'' in 2008. In 2009, a documentary about Burmese [[videojournalist]]s called ''[[Burma VJ]]'' was released.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://burmavjmovie.com/ |title=Burma VJ – Academy Award Nominee – Best Documentary Feature |publisher=Burmavjmovie.com |date= |accessdate=17 April 2010}}</ref> This film was nominated for [[Academy Award for Best Documentary Feature|Best Documentary Feature]] at the [[82nd Academy Awards|2010 Academy Awards]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://dannyfisher.org/2010/02/02/burma-vj-nominated-for-a-2010-academy-award-for-best-documentary-feature/ |title=Burma VJ Nominated for the 2010 Academy Award for Best Documentary Feature « Rev. Danny Fisher |publisher=Dannyfisher.org |date=2 February 2010 |accessdate=17 April 2010}}</ref>

 

{{Main|Outline of Burma}}

* [[Index of Burma-related articles]]

 

{{Reflist|2}}

 

{{Sister project links}}

{{Wikinews}}

; Government

; General information

 

{{Burma (Myanmar) topics}}

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