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"ගෝත්‍ර" හි සංශෝධන අතර වෙනස්කම්

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{{අනාථ ලිපිය|date=ජූනි 2013}}
{{පරිවර්ථනය}}
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{{Forms of government}}
A '''tribe''', viewed historically or developmentally, consists of a [[social group]] existing before the development of, or outside of, [[Sovereign state|states]].
 
Many anthropologists use the term to refer to societies organized largely on the basis of [[kinship]], especially corporate descent groups (see [[clan]] and [[Lineage (anthropology)|lineage]]).
 
Some theorists hold that tribes represent a stage in social evolution intermediate between [[band society|band]]s and states. Other theorists argue that tribes developed after, and must be understood in terms of their relationship to, states.
 
==Etymology==
The English word ''tribe'' occurs in 13th century [[Middle English]] literature as referring to one of the [[Twelve Tribes of Israel]]. The word is from Old French ''tribu'', in turn from Latin ''tribus'', referring to the original tripartite ethnic division of the [[Ancient Rome|Roman state]]: Tities (Titienses), Ramnes (Ramnenses), and Luceres, corresponding, according to [[Marcus Terentius Varro|Varro]], to the [[Latins]], [[Sabines]], and [[Etruscans]] respectively. The Ramnes were named after [[Romulus]], leader of the Latins, Tities after [[Tatius]], leader of the Sabines, and Luceres after Lucumo, leader of an Etruscan army that had assisted the Latins. According to [[Livy]], the three tribes were in fact squadrons of knights, rather than ethnic divisions.
 
The term's ultimate etymology may be found in the Latin word for three, "tres". The dative and ablative declensions of this word are both "tribus".
The word "tribus" could therefore mean "from the three" or "for the three".
 
Another theory holds that ''tribus'' is perhaps derived from the [[PIE]] roots ''*tri-'' "three" and ''*bhew-'' "to be".<ref>cf. Gregory Nagy, ''Greek Mythology and Poetics'', Chapter 12, p.276 and on. On p.278, he says, citing the linguist [[Émile Benveniste]] in his ''Origines de la formation des noms en indo-européen'', that the Umbrian "trifu" (tribus) is apparently derived from a combination of *tri- and *bhu- where the second element is cognate with the 'phu-' of Greek 'phule', and that this was subdividing the Greek polis into three phulai.</ref>
 
From 242-240 BC, the [[Tribal Assembly]] (''comitia tributa'') in the [[Roman Republic]] was organized in 35 Tribes (4 "Urban Tribes" and 31 "Rural Tribes"). The Latin word as used in the Bible translates as Greek ''[[phyle]]'' "race, tribe, clan" and ultimately the Hebrew שבט. In the historical sense, "tribe", "race" or "clan" can be used interchangeably.
 
==අර්ථනය==
Considerable debate takes place over how best to characterize tribes. Some of this debate stems from perceived differences between pre-state tribes and contemporary tribes; some of this debate reflects more general controversy over [[cultural evolution]] and [[colonialism]]. In the popular imagination, tribes reflect a way of life that predates, and is more "[[nature|natural]]", than that in modern states. Tribes also privilege primordial social ties, are clearly bounded, homogeneous, parochial, and stable. Thus, many believed that tribes organize links between families (including clans and lineages), and provide them with a social and ideological basis for solidarity that is in some way more limited than that of an "ethnic group" or of a "[[nation]]". [[Anthropology|Anthropological]] and ethnohistorical research has challenged all of these notions.
 
[[Cultural anthropology|Anthropologist]] [[Elman Service]] presented a system of classification for societies in all human cultures based on the evolution of [[social inequality]] and the role of the [[Sovereign state|state]]. This system of classification contains four categories:
# [[Gatherer-hunter]] [[Band society|band]]s, which are generally [[egalitarianism|egalitarian]].
# Tribal societies in which there are some limited instances of [[social rank]] and prestige.
# [[Social stratification|Stratified]] tribal societies led by [[tribal chief|chieftain]]s.
# [[Civilization]]s, with complex social hierarchies and organized, institutional governments.
 
In his 1972 study, ''The Notion of the Tribe'', [[Cultural anthropology|anthropologist]] [[Morton Fried|Morton H. Fried]] provided numerous examples of tribes the members of which spoke different languages and practised different rituals, or that shared languages and rituals with members of other tribes. Similarly, he provided examples of tribes where people followed different political leaders, or followed the same leaders as members of other tribes. He concluded that tribes in general are characterized by fluid boundaries and heterogeneity, are not parochial, and are dynamic.{{Citation needed|date=November 2008}}
 
Fried, however, proposed that most contemporary tribes do not have their origin in pre-state tribes, but rather in pre-state bands. Such "secondary" tribes, he suggested, actually came about as modern products of state expansion. Bands comprise small, mobile, and fluid social formations with weak [[leadership]], that do not generate surpluses, pay no taxes and support no standing army. Fried argued that secondary tribes develop in one of two ways. First, states could set them up as means to extend administrative and economic influence in their hinterland, where direct political control costs too much. States would encourage (or require) people on their frontiers to form more clearly bounded and centralized polities, because such polities could begin producing surpluses and taxes, and would have a leadership responsive to the needs of neighboring states (the so-called "scheduled" tribes of the United States or of British India provide good examples of this). Second, bands could form "secondary" tribes as a means to defend themselves against state expansion. Members of bands would form more clearly bounded and centralized polities, because such polities could begin producing surpluses that could support a standing army that could fight against states, and they would have a leadership that could co-ordinate economic production and military activities.
 
In some countries, such as the [[ඇමරිකානු එක්සත් ජනපදය]] and [[India]], tribes are [[polities]] that have been granted legal recognition and limited autonomy by the state.
 
[[Archaeology|Archeologists]] continue to explore the development of pre-state tribes. Current research suggests that tribal structures constituted one type of adaptation to situations providing plentiful yet unpredictable resources. Such structures proved flexible enough to co-ordinate production and distribution of food in times of scarcity, without limiting or constraining people during times of surplus.
 
==See also==
*[[Social group]]
*[[Tribalism]]
*[[Iwi]]
*[[Neotribalism]]
*[[Anarcho-primitivism]]
*[[Nomad]]
*[[Patriclan]]
*[[Tribal sovereignty]]
*[[Tribal chief]]
*[[Tribal name]]
*[[Tribal warfare]]
*[[Zoku]]
*[[Pantribal sodalities]]
 
==References==
{{reflist}}
 
* [[Émile Benveniste|Benveniste, Émile]]
**''Indo-European Language and Society'', translated by Elizabeth Palmer. London: Faber and Faber 1973. ISBN 0-87024-250-4.
**''Origines de la formation des noms en indo-européen'', 1935.
* Fried, Morton H. ''The Notion of Tribe''. Cummings Publishing Company, 1975. ISBN 0-8465-1548-2
* Nagy, Gregory, ''Greek Mythology and Poetics'', Cornell University Press, 1990. In chapter 12, beginning on p.&nbsp;276, Professor Nagy explores the meaning of the word origin and social context of a tribe in ancient Greece and beyond.
 
==External links==
*[http://www.firstmonday.org/issues/issue10_3/ronfeldt/#r1 Basic dynamics of classic tribes]
*[http://www.scribd.com/doc/17138659/Korotayev-Chiefdom-Precursor-of-the-Tribe Chiefdom: Precursor of the Tribe?]
*[http://www.akhathai.org Oldest organization in Asia protecting tribal culture]
 
[[Category:Ethnology]]
[[Category:Tribe| ]]
 
{{This|the social structure}}
{{Wiktionarypar|tribe|tribal}}
{{Forms of government}}
A '''tribe''', viewed historically or developmentally, consists of a [[social group]] existing before the development of, or outside of, [[Sovereign state|states]].
 
Many anthropologists use the term to refer to societies organized largely on the basis of [[kinship]], especially corporate descent groups (see [[clan]] and [[Lineage (anthropology)|lineage]]).
 
Some theorists hold that tribes represent a stage in social evolution intermediate between [[band society|band]]s and states. Other theorists argue that tribes developed after, and must be understood in terms of their relationship to, states.
 
==Etymology==
The English word ''tribe'' occurs in 13th century [[Middle English]] literature as referring to one of the [[Twelve Tribes of Israel]]. The word is from Old French ''tribu'', in turn from Latin ''tribus'', referring to the original tripartite ethnic division of the [[Ancient Rome|Roman state]]: Tities (Titienses), Ramnes (Ramnenses), and Luceres, corresponding, according to [[Marcus Terentius Varro|Varro]], to the [[Latins]], [[Sabines]], and [[Etruscans]] respectively. The Ramnes were named after [[Romulus]], leader of the Latins, Tities after [[Tatius]], leader of the Sabines, and Luceres after Lucumo, leader of an Etruscan army that had assisted the Latins. According to [[Livy]], the three tribes were in fact squadrons of knights, rather than ethnic divisions.
 
The term's ultimate etymology may be found in the Latin word for three, "tres". The dative and ablative declensions of this word are both "tribus".
The word "tribus" could therefore mean "from the three" or "for the three".
 
Another theory holds that ''tribus'' is perhaps derived from the [[PIE]] roots ''*tri-'' "three" and ''*bhew-'' "to be".<ref>cf. Gregory Nagy, ''Greek Mythology and Poetics'', Chapter 12, p.276 and on. On p.278, he says, citing the linguist [[Émile Benveniste]] in his ''Origines de la formation des noms en indo-européen'', that the Umbrian "trifu" (tribus) is apparently derived from a combination of *tri- and *bhu- where the second element is cognate with the 'phu-' of Greek 'phule', and that this was subdividing the Greek polis into three phulai.</ref>
 
From 242-240 BC, the [[Tribal Assembly]] (''comitia tributa'') in the [[Roman Republic]] was organized in 35 Tribes (4 "Urban Tribes" and 31 "Rural Tribes"). The Latin word as used in the Bible translates as Greek ''[[phyle]]'' "race, tribe, clan" and ultimately the Hebrew שבט. In the historical sense, "tribe", "race" or "clan" can be used interchangeably.
 
==Definition==
Considerable debate takes place over how best to characterize tribes. Some of this debate stems from perceived differences between pre-state tribes and contemporary tribes; some of this debate reflects more general controversy over [[cultural evolution]] and [[colonialism]]. In the popular imagination, tribes reflect a way of life that predates, and is more "[[nature|natural]]", than that in modern states. Tribes also privilege primordial social ties, are clearly bounded, homogeneous, parochial, and stable. Thus, many believed that tribes organize links between families (including clans and lineages), and provide them with a social and ideological basis for solidarity that is in some way more limited than that of an "ethnic group" or of a "[[nation]]". [[Anthropology|Anthropological]] and ethnohistorical research has challenged all of these notions.
 
[[Cultural anthropology|Anthropologist]] [[Elman Service]] presented a system of classification for societies in all human cultures based on the evolution of [[social inequality]] and the role of the [[Sovereign state|state]]. This system of classification contains four categories:
# [[Gatherer-hunter]] [[Band society|band]]s, which are generally [[egalitarianism|egalitarian]].
# Tribal societies in which there are some limited instances of [[social rank]] and prestige.
# [[Social stratification|Stratified]] tribal societies led by [[tribal chief|chieftain]]s.
# [[Civilization]]s, with complex social hierarchies and organized, institutional governments.
 
In his 1972 study, ''The Notion of the Tribe'', [[Cultural anthropology|anthropologist]] [[Morton Fried|Morton H. Fried]] provided numerous examples of tribes the members of which spoke different languages and practised different rituals, or that shared languages and rituals with members of other tribes. Similarly, he provided examples of tribes where people followed different political leaders, or followed the same leaders as members of other tribes. He concluded that tribes in general are characterized by fluid boundaries and heterogeneity, are not parochial, and are dynamic.{{Citation needed|date=November 2008}}
 
Fried, however, proposed that most contemporary tribes do not have their origin in pre-state tribes, but rather in pre-state bands. Such "secondary" tribes, he suggested, actually came about as modern products of state expansion. Bands comprise small, mobile, and fluid social formations with weak [[leadership]], that do not generate surpluses, pay no taxes and support no standing army. Fried argued that secondary tribes develop in one of two ways. First, states could set them up as means to extend administrative and economic influence in their hinterland, where direct political control costs too much. States would encourage (or require) people on their frontiers to form more clearly bounded and centralized polities, because such polities could begin producing surpluses and taxes, and would have a leadership responsive to the needs of neighboring states (the so-called "scheduled" tribes of the United States or of British India provide good examples of this). Second, bands could form "secondary" tribes as a means to defend themselves against state expansion. Members of bands would form more clearly bounded and centralized polities, because such polities could begin producing surpluses that could support a standing army that could fight against states, and they would have a leadership that could co-ordinate economic production and military activities.
 
In some countries, such as the [[ඇමරිකානු එක්සත් ජනපදය]] and [[India]], tribes are [[polities]] that have been granted legal recognition and limited autonomy by the state.
 
[[Archaeology|Archeologists]] continue to explore the development of pre-state tribes. Current research suggests that tribal structures constituted one type of adaptation to situations providing plentiful yet unpredictable resources. Such structures proved flexible enough to co-ordinate production and distribution of food in times of scarcity, without limiting or constraining people during times of surplus.
 
==See also==
*[[Social group]]
*[[Tribalism]]
*[[Iwi]]
*[[Neotribalism]]
*[[Anarcho-primitivism]]
*[[Nomad]]
*[[Patriclan]]
*[[Tribal sovereignty]]
*[[Tribal chief]]
*[[Tribal name]]
*[[Tribal warfare]]
*[[Zoku]]
*[[Pantribal sodalities]]
 
==References==
{{reflist}}
 
* [[Émile Benveniste|Benveniste, Émile]]
**''Indo-European Language and Society'', translated by Elizabeth Palmer. London: Faber and Faber 1973. ISBN 0-87024-250-4.
**''Origines de la formation des noms en indo-européen'', 1935.
* Fried, Morton H. ''The Notion of Tribe''. Cummings Publishing Company, 1975. ISBN 0-8465-1548-2
* Nagy, Gregory, ''Greek Mythology and Poetics'', Cornell University Press, 1990. In chapter 12, beginning on p.&nbsp;276, Professor Nagy explores the meaning of the word origin and social context of a tribe in ancient Greece and beyond.
 
==External links==
*[http://www.firstmonday.org/issues/issue10_3/ronfeldt/#r1 Basic dynamics of classic tribes]
*[http://www.scribd.com/doc/17138659/Korotayev-Chiefdom-Precursor-of-the-Tribe Chiefdom: Precursor of the Tribe?]
*[http://www.akhathai.org Oldest organization in Asia protecting tribal culture]
 
[[Category:Ethnology]]
[[Category:Tribe| ]]
"https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/ගෝත්‍ර" වෙතින් සම්ප්‍රවේශනය කෙරිණි