"පෝලියෝ එන්නත" හි සංශෝධන අතර වෙනස්කම්
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සංස්කරණය-අළුත් පිටුවෙන් අන්තර්ගතය පැරණි පිටුවට |
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1 පේළිය:
[[පෝලියෝමයලයිටිස්]] (හෝ පෝලියෝ) මැඩපැවැත්වීමට ලොව පුරා '''පෝලියෝ [[එන්නත|එන්නත්]]''' දෙකක් භාවිතා වෙයි. පළමුවැන්න වැඩි දියුණු කරන ලද්දේ [[ජෝනස් සෝක්]] විසින් වන අතර අත්හදාබැලීම 1952 දී සිදු විය. සෝක් විසින් 1955, අප්‍රේල් 12 දින ලොවට ප්‍රකාශ කල මෙම අන්නත ක්‍රියාත්මක වන්නේ අක්‍රීය කල (මළ) [[පෝලියෝ වයිරසය|පෝලියෝ වයිරස]] මාත්‍රයක් එන්නත් කිරීමෙනි. [[කනුකෘත වයිරසය|තනුකෘක]] පෝලියෝ වයිරස භාවිතා කිරීමෙන් [[ඇල්බට් සේබින්]] විසින් මුඛීය එන්නතක් වැඩි දියුණු කරන ලදි. සේබින්ගේ එන්නතෙහි [[සායනික පිරික්සුම|සායනික පිරික්සුම්]] 1957 දී ඇරඹුනු අතර 1962 දී භාවිතයට අවසර ලදි.
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බාලක පක්ෂගාත රෝගය(පෝලියෝ) සම්පුර්ණයෙන්ම ලෝකයෙන් ඉවත් කරන්න සටන් කරන්න පෝලියෝ එන්නත් 2ක් භාවිතා කරනවා. පලවෙනි එන්නත වැඩිදියුණු කරනු ලැබුවේ ජෝන්ස් සලක් විසින් පලවෙනි වතාවට පරික්ෂ කරනු ලැබුවේ 1952 දී ය.ලෝකයට ප්‍රසිද්ද කරනු ලැබුවේ ආචාර්ය තෝමස් ෆ්‍රැන්සිස් ජුනියර් විසින් 1955 අප්‍රේල් 12 වෙනිදාය.එහිදී අක්‍රිය පෝලියෝ වෛරසය එන්නත් කරනු ලබනවා.මුඛ මාර්ගයෙන් ලබාදෙන පෝලියෝ එන්නත වැඩිදියුණු කරනු ලැබුයේ ඇල්බර්ට් සබින් විසිනි එහි අඩංගු වන්නේ වෑරුනු පෝලියෝ වෛරසයි.ස්බින්ගේ මෙම එන්නත මිනිසුන් සදහා පරික්ෂ ආරම්භ කරනු ලැබුයේ 1957 දී ය සහ එයට අවසරය ලැබුනේ 1962 දී ය.<ref>{{cite web | title = A Science Odyssey: People and Discoveries | publisher = PBS | year = 1998 | url = http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aso/databank/entries/dm52sa.html | accessdate = 2008-11-29}}</ref> There is no long term [[asymptomatic carrier|carrier]] state for poliovirus in [[immunocompetent]] individuals, polioviruses have no non-primate reservoir in nature (although they have been induced in transgenic mice),<ref>{{cite journal|url = http://www.pnas.org/content/88/3/951.long|journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume = 88| issue=1|year = 1991| title=Transgenic Mice Susceptible to Polio Virus| author = Koike S, Choji T, Takeshi K, Shinobu A, Iku I, Hiromichi Y| accessdate = 01 March 2014}}</ref> and survival of the virus in the environment for an extended period of time appears to be remote. Therefore, interruption of person to person transmission of the virus by vaccination is the critical step in global [[Poliomyelitis eradication|polio eradication]].<ref name=Fine>{{cite journal |author=Fine P, Carneiro I |title=Transmissibility and persistence of oral polio vaccine viruses: implications for the global poliomyelitis eradication initiative |url= http://aje.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/150/10/1001| journal=Am J Epidemiol |volume=150 |issue=10 |pages=1001–21 |date=15 November 1999|pmid=10568615 |doi=10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a009924 }}</ref> The two vaccines have eradicated polio from most countries in the world,<ref name=Aylward_2006>{{cite journal |author=Aylward RB |title=Eradicating polio: today's challenges and tomorrow's legacy |journal=Annals of Tropical Medicine and Parasitology |volume=100 |issue=5–6 |pages=401–13 |year=2006 |pmid=16899145 |doi=10.1179/136485906X97354 |url=http://openurl.ingenta.com/content/nlm?genre=article&issn=0003-4983&volume=100&issue=5-6&spage=401&aulast=Aylward |accessdate=2009-01-02}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Schonberger L, Kaplan J, Kim-Farley R, Moore M, Eddins D, Hatch M |title=Control of paralytic poliomyelitis in the United States |journal=Rev. Infect. Dis. |volume=6 Suppl 2 |pages=S424–6 |year=1984 |pmid=6740085 |doi=10.1093/clinids/6.Supplement_2.S424}}</ref> and reduced the worldwide incidence from an estimated 350,000 cases in 1988 to just 223 cases in 2012.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.cdc.gov/polio/progress/|title = Our Progress Against Polio|publisher = Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|accessdate = 4 September 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs114/en/|title = Poliomyelitis: Fact sheet N°114|publisher = World Health Organization|accessdate = 4 September 2013|date = April 2013}}</ref>
In November 2013, the [[World Health Organization]] announced a polio outbreak in Syria. In response, the [[Armenia]]n government put out a notice asking Syrian Armenians under age 15 to get the polio vaccine.<ref>Lisa Barron, [http://cistranfinance.com/news/armenian-health-ministry-urges-syrian-armenian-children-to-get-polio-vaccine/666/ "Armenian Health Ministry: Syrian Armenian children need polio vaccine"], ''CISTran Finance'', 4 Nov 2013. Retrieved 18 Dec 2013.</ref>
== Development ==
In generic sense, vaccination works by priming the [[immune system]] with an '[[immunogen]]'. Stimulating immune response, via use of an infectious agent, is known as [[immunization]]. The development of immunity to polio efficiently blocks person-to-person transmission of wild poliovirus, thereby protecting both individual vaccine recipients and [[herd immunity|the wider community]].<ref name=Fine/>
In 1936, Maurice Brodie, a research assistant at [[New York University]], attempted to produce a [[formaldehyde]]-killed polio vaccine from ground-up monkey [[spinal cord]]s. His initial attempts were hampered by the difficulty of obtaining enough virus. Brodie first tested the vaccine on himself and several of his assistants. He then gave the vaccine to three thousand children. Many of these children developed allergic reactions, but none developed immunity to polio.<ref name = Pearce>{{cite journal |author=Pearce J |title=Salk and Sabin: poliomyelitis immunisation |url= http://jnnp.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/75/11/1552 |journal=J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry |volume=75 |issue=11 |page=1552 |year=2004 |pmid = 15489385 |doi=10.1136/jnnp.2003.028530 |pmc=1738787}}</ref> Philadelphia pathologist John Kolmer also claimed to have developed a vaccine that same year, but it too produced no immunity and was blamed for causing cases of paralytic polio, nine of them fatal.<ref name=Rainsberger>{{cite web | author=Rainsberger M | title=More than a March of Dimes | publisher=The University of Texas at Austin | url=https://www.utexas.edu/features/2005/polio/index.html | date=2005-06-27 <!-- accessdate=2011-05-19 -->}}</ref>
[[File:Polio immunization days PHIL 2445.png|thumb|300px|left|Mass polio vaccination in [[Columbus, Georgia]] during the early days of the National Polio Immunization Program.]]
A breakthrough came in 1948 when a research group headed by [[John Enders]] at the [[Children's Hospital Boston]] successfully cultivated the [[poliovirus]] in human tissue in the laboratory.<ref name=Enders>{{cite journal |author=Enders JF, Weller TH, Robbins FC |title=Cultivation of the Lansing Strain of Poliomyelitis Virus in Cultures of Various Human Embryonic Tissues |journal=Science |volume=109 |issue=2822 |pages=85–87 |date=January 1949 |pmid=17794160 |doi=10.1126/science.109.2822.85 |url=http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=17794160}}</ref> This group had recently successfully grown mumps in cell culture. In March 1948 [[Thomas H. Weller]] was attempting to grow varicella virus in embryonic lung tissue. He had inoculated the planned number of tubes when he noticed that there were a few unused tubes. He retrieved a sample of mouse brain infected with polio virus and added it to the remaining test tubes, on the off chance that the virus might grow. The varicella cultures failed to grow but the polio cultures were successful.
This development greatly facilitated vaccine research and ultimately allowed for the development of vaccines against polio. Enders and his colleagues, [[Thomas H. Weller]] and [[Frederick C. Robbins]], were recognized in 1954 for their labors with a [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]].<ref name=Nobel_1954>{{cite web | title=The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1954 | publisher=The Nobel Foundation | url=http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1954/ | accessdate=2008-11-29}}</ref> Other important advances that led to the development of polio vaccines were: the identification of three poliovirus [[serotype]]s (Poliovirus type 1 — PV1, or Mahoney; PV2, Lansing; and PV3, Leon); the finding that prior to paralysis, the virus must be present in the blood; and the demonstration that administration of antibodies in the form of [[gamma globulin]] protects against paralytic polio.<ref name="Kew_2005">{{cite journal |author=Kew O, Sutter R, de Gourville E, Dowdle W, Pallansch M |title=Vaccine-derived polioviruses and the endgame strategy for global polio eradication |journal=Annu Rev Microbiol |volume=59 |pages=587–635 |year=2005 |pmid=16153180 |doi=10.1146/annurev.micro.58.030603.123625 |url=http://arjournals.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev.micro.58.030603.123625?url_ver=Z39.88-2003&rfr_id=ori:rid:crossref.org&rfr_dat=cr_pub%3dncbi.nlm.nih.gov}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Hammon W, Coriell L, Wehrle P, Stokes J |title=Evaluation of Red Cross gamma globulin as a prophylactic agent for poliomyelitis. IV. Final report of results based on clinical diagnoses |journal=J Am Med Assoc |volume=151 |issue=15 |pages=1272–85 |year=1953 |pmid=13034471}}</ref>
[[File:Gallo, Robert C. and Sabin, Albert B.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Albert Sabin]] (right) with [[Robert Gallo]], circa 1985]]
In 1952 and 1953, the U.S. experienced an outbreak of 58,000 and 35,000 polio cases, respectively, up from a typical number of some 20,000 a year. Amid this U.S. polio epidemic, millions of dollars were invested in finding and marketing a polio vaccine by commercial interests, including Lederle Laboratories in New York under the direction of [[H. R. Cox]]. Also working at Lederle was Polish-born [[virologist]] and [[immunologist]] [[Hilary Koprowski]], who claims to have created the first successful polio vaccine, in 1950. His vaccine, however, being a live attenuated virus taken orally, was still in the research stage and would not be ready for use until five years after Jonas Salk's polio vaccine (a dead-virus injectable vaccine) had reached the market. Koprowski's attenuated vaccine was prepared by successive passages through the brains of Swiss albino mice. By the seventh passage, the vaccine strains could no longer infect nervous tissue or cause paralysis. After one to three further passages on rats, the vaccine was deemed safe for human use.<ref name = Sanofi/><ref>{{cite journal |title=Weekly Reports for OCTOBER 10, 1947 |journal=Public Health Rep |volume=62 |issue=41 |pages=1467–1498 |date=October 1947 |pmid=19316151 |pmc=1995293 |doi= }}</ref> On February 27, 1950, Koprowski's live, attenuated vaccine was tested for the first time on an 8-year-old boy living at [[Letchworth Village]], an institution for the physically and mentally disabled located in New York. After the child suffered no side effects, Koprowski enlarged his experiment to include 19 other children.<ref name = Sanofi/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.historyofvaccines.org/content/timelines/polio | title = Interview with Hilary Koprowski, sourced at History of Vaccines website | first=Hilary |last=Koprowski | date=15 October 2010 | accessdate=15 October 2010| publisher=[[College of Physicians of Philadelphia]]}}</ref>
The development of two polio vaccines led to the first modern mass [[inoculation]]s. The last cases of paralytic poliomyelitis caused by endemic transmission of wild virus in the United States occurred in 1979, with an outbreak among the [[Amish]] in several [[Midwest]] states.<ref name = PinkPages>{{cite book | author = Atkinson W, Hamborsky J, McIntyre L, Wolfe S, eds. | title = Epidemiology and Prevention of Vaccine-Preventable Diseases (The Pink Book) | edition = 10th ed. (2nd printing) | publisher = Public Health Foundation | location = Washington, D.C. | year = 2008 | url = http://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/pubs/pinkbook/downloads/polio-508.pdf |format=PDF| accessdate = 2008-11-29}}{{dead link|date=January 2013}}</ref> A global effort to eradicate polio, led by the [[World Health Organization]], [[UNICEF]], and [[The Rotary Foundation]], began in 1988 and has relied largely on the oral polio vaccine developed by [[Albert Sabin]].<ref name= Watch>{{cite web| last = Mastny| first = Lisa | title = Eradicating Polio: A Model for International Cooperation |publisher = Worldwatch Institute | date = 1999-01-25 | url = http://www.worldwatch.org/node/1644 | accessdate = 2008-11-29}}</ref> The disease was entirely eradicated in the [[Americas]] by 1994.<ref name=MMWR_1994>{{cite journal | title = International Notes Certification of Poliomyelitis Eradication — the Americas, 1994 | journal = Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report | publisher = Centers for Disease Control and Prevention | volume= 43 | issue= 39 | pages = 720–722 | year=1994 | url = http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/00032760.htm | pmid = 7522302| author1= Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) }}</ref> Polio was officially eradicated in 36 Western Pacific countries, including China and Australia in 2000.<ref name= Pacific>{{cite journal | author = ,| title = General News. Major Milestone reached in Global Polio Eradication: Western Pacific Region is certified Polio-Free | journal = Health Educ Res | year = 2001 | volume = 16 | issue = 1 | page = 109 | url= http://her.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/16/1/109.pdf | format = PDF| doi = 10.1093/her/16.1.109}}</ref><ref name="D'Souza_2002">{{cite journal |author=D'Souza R, Kennett M, Watson C |title=Australia declared polio free |journal=Commun Dis Intell |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=253–60 |year=2002 |pmid=12206379}}</ref> [[Europe]] was declared polio-free in 2002.<ref name=WHO_Europe_2002>{{cite press release | title = Europe achieves historic milestone as Region is declared polio-free | publisher = European Region of the World Health Organization | date = 2002-06-21 | url = http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/releases/releaseeuro02/en/index.html | accessdate = 2008-08-23 }}</ref> Since January 2011, there were no reported cases of the disease in India, and hence in February 2012, the country was taken off the WHO list of polio endemic countries. It is reported that if there are no cases of polio in the country for two more years, it will be declared as a polio-free country.<ref>{{cite news|last=Ray|first=Kalyan|title=India wins battle against dreaded polio|newspaper=Deccan Herald|date=26 February 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=India polio-free for a year: ‘First time in history we’re able to put up such a map’|url=http://www.telegraphindia.com/1120226/jsp/frontpage/story_15181357.jsp|accessdate=26 February 2012|newspaper=The Telegraph|date=26 February 2012}}</ref> As of 2008, polio remains [[Endemic (epidemiology)|endemic]] in only three countries: [[Nigeria]], [[Pakistan]], and [[Afghanistan]].<ref name="eradication">{{cite journal |title=Update on vaccine-derived polioviruses |journal=MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. |volume=55 |issue=40 |pages=1093–7 |date=October 2006 |pmid=17035927 |url=http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5540a3.htm |author1= Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Rafael |first=Pe
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