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{{Race}}
The term '''race''' or '''racial group''' usually refers to the categorization of [[human]]s into [[population]]s or [[Group (sociology)|group]]s on the basis of various sets of [[heritable]] characteristics.<ref name="AAPA">[http://www.physanth.org/positions/race.html AAPA Statement on Biological Aspects of Race] American Association of Physical Anthropologists "Pure races do not exist in the human species today, nor is there any evidence that they have ever existed in the past."</ref> The most widely used human racial [[Taxonomy|categories]] are based on salient visual [[Trait (biological)|trait]]s (especially [[skin color]], [[cranium|cranial]] or [[face|facial features]] and [[hair|hair texture]]), and self-identification.<ref name="AAPA" /><ref>Bamshad, Michael and Steve E. Olson. [http://schools.tdsb.on.ca/rhking/departments/science/bio/evol_pop_dyn/does_race_exist.pdf "Does Race Exist?"], ''Scientific American Magazine'' (10 November 2003).</ref>
 
Conceptions of race, as well as specific ways of [[racial grouping|grouping races]], vary by culture and over time, and are often controversial for scientific as well as [[social identity|social]] and [[identity politics|political]] reasons. The controversy ultimately revolves around whether or not the concept of race is biologically warranted;<ref name="first1">{{cite web|url=http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/first/brace.html |title=NOVA Online &#124; Mystery of the First Americans &#124; An antagonist's perspective |publisher=Pbs.org |date= |accessdate=2009-04-18}}</ref><ref name="first2">{{cite web|url=http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/first/gill.html |title=NOVA Online &#124; Mystery of the First Americans &#124; A proponent's perspective |publisher=Pbs.org |date= |accessdate=2009-04-18}}</ref> the ways in which [[political correctness]] might fuel either the affirmation or the denial of race;<ref name="first1"/><ref name="first2"/> and the degree to which perceived differences in ability and achievement, categorized on the basis of race, are a product of inherited (i.e., genetic) traits or environmental, social and cultural factors.
 
Some argue that although race is a valid [[taxonomy|taxonomic]] concept in other species, it cannot be applied to humans.<ref>S O Y Keita, R A Kittles, C D M Royal, G E Bonney, P Furbert-Harris, G M Dunston & C N Rotimi, 2004 "Conceptualizing human variation" in ''Nature Genetics'' 36, S17 - S20 [http://www.nature.com/ng/journal/v36/n11s/full/ng1455.html Conceptualizing human variation]</ref> Many scientists have argued that race definitions are imprecise, arbitrary, derived from [[Tradition|custom]], have many exceptions, have many gradations, and that the numbers of races delineated vary according to the culture making the racial distinctions; thus they reject the notion that any definition of race pertaining to humans can have taxonomic rigour and validity.<ref>For example this statement expressing the official viewpoint of the American Anthropological Association at [http://www.aaanet.org/stmts/racepp.htm their web page]: "Evidence from the analysis of genetics (e.g., DNA) indicates that most physical variation lies within so-called racial groups. This means that there is greater variation within 'racial' groups than between them."</ref> Today many scientists study human [[genotype|genotypic]] and [[phenotype|phenotypic]] variation using concepts such as "population" and "[[Cline (population genetics)|clinal gradation]]". Many contend that while racial categorizations may be marked by phenotypic or genotypic traits, the idea of race itself, and actual divisions of persons into races or racial groups, are [[social construction|social construct]]s.<ref>[[John Lie]] ''Modern Peoplehood'' (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2004)</ref><ref name="Society in Focus">{{cite book | last = Thompson | first = William | authorlink = | coauthors = Joseph Hickey | year = 2005 | title = Society in Focus | publisher = Pearson | location = Boston, MA| isbn = 0-205-41365-X}}</ref><ref name="Gordon64" /><ref name="AAAonRace" /><ref name="Palmie07" /><ref name="Mevorach07" /><ref>Daniel A. Segal ''[http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0268-540X%28199110%297%3A5%3C7%3A%27EAORP%3E2.0.CO%3B2-7&size=LARGE&origin=JSTOR-enlargePage 'The European': Allegories of Racial Purity]'' Anthropology Today, Vol. 7, No. 5 (Oct., 1991), pp. 7-9 doi:10.2307/3032780</ref><ref name="presentations2005">Bindon, Jim. University of Alabama. "[http://www.as.ua.edu/ant/bindon/ant275/presentations/POST_WWII.PDF#search=%22stanley%20marion%20garn%22 Post World War II"]. 2005. August 28, 2006.</ref> However, the concept of race may be useful in [[forensic anthropology]]. According to forensic anthropologist [[George W. Gill]], "race denial" not only contradicts biological evidence, but may stem from "politically motivated censorship" in the belief that "race promotes racism".<ref name="first2"/>
 
== History ==
{{See also|Historical definitions of race}}
=== In ancient civilizations ===
{{See also|Ancient Egypt and race}}
[[Image:Central Asian Buddhist Monks.jpeg|thumb|150px|Blue-eyed [[Central Asia]]n ([[Tocharians|Tocharian]]?) and East-Asian Buddhist monks, [[Bezeklik]], Eastern [[Tarim Basin]], 9th-10th century.<ref>[http://discovermagazine.com/1994/apr/themummiesofxinj359 The Mummies of Xinjiang], DISCOVER Magazine</ref><ref>[http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/a-meeting-of-civilisations-the-mystery-of-chinas-celtic-mummies-413638.html A meeting of civilisations: The mystery of China's Celtic mummies], The Independent</ref>]]
Given visually complex social relationships, humans presumably have always observed and speculated about the physical differences among individuals and groups. But different societies have attributed markedly different meanings to these distinctions. For example, the [[Ancient Egypt]]ian sacred text called ''[[Book of Gates]]'' identifies four categories that are now conventionally labeled "Egyptians", "Asiatics", "Libyans", and "Nubians", but such distinctions tended to [[conflation|conflate]] differences as defined by physical features such as skin tone, with [[tribe|tribal]] and [[nation]]al identity. [[Classical civilization]]s from [[Ancient Rome|Rome]] to [[Ancient China|China]] tended to invest much more importance in [[family|familial]] or tribal affiliation than with one's physical appearance (Dikötter 1992; Goldenberg 2003). [[Ancient Greek]] and Roman authors also attempted to explain and categorize visible [[biologic]]al differences among peoples known to them. Such categories often also included fantastical human-like beings that were supposed to exist in far-away lands. Some Roman writers adhered to an [[environmental determinism]] in which [[climate]] could affect the appearance and [[character (biology)|character]] of groups (Isaac 2004). In many ancient civilizations, individuals with widely varying physical appearances became full members of a [[society]] by growing up within that society or by adopting that society's [[culture|cultural]] [[norm (sociology)|norms]] (Snowden 1983; Lewis 1990).
 
[[Julian the Apostate]] was an early observer of the differences in humans, based on ethnic, cultural, and geographic traits, but as the idea of race had not yet been conceptualized,{{Citation needed|date=May 2009}} he believed that they were proof of randomness and the inexistence of "Providence":
 
<blockquote>Come, tell me why it is that the Celts and the Germans are fierce, while the Hellenes and Romans are, generally speaking, inclined to political life and humane, though at the same time unyielding and warlike? Why the Egyptians are more intelligent and more given to crafts, and the Syrians unwarlike and effeminate, but at the same time intelligent, hot-tempered, vain and quick to learn? For if there is anyone who does not discern a reason for these differences among the nations, but rather declaims that all this so befell spontaneously, how, I ask, can he still believe that the universe is administered by a providence? — Julian, the Apostate.<ref>[http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/julian_apostate_galileans_1_text.htm Julian the Apostate, ''Against the Galileans'']: remains of the 3 books, excerpted from Cyril of Alexandria, ''Contra Julianum'' (1923) pp.319-433</ref>
</blockquote>
 
[[Medieval]] models of race mixed [[Graeco-Roman|Classical]] ideas with the notion that humanity as a whole was descended from [[Shem]], [[Ham (son of Noah)|Ham]] and [[Japheth]], the three [[sons of Noah]], producing distinct [[Semitic]] ([[Asia]]tic), [[Hamitic]] ([[Africa]]n), and [[Japhetic]] ([[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]]) peoples. This theory dates back to the [[Abrahamic religions|Abrahamic]] tradition, as described in the Babylonian [[Talmud]], which states that "the descendants of Ham are cursed by being [[Black people|black]], and [it] depicts Ham as a sinful man and his progeny as degenerates."{{Citation needed|date=June 2009}} In the 14th century, the [[Sociology in medieval Islam|Islamic sociologist]] [[Ibn Khaldun]], an adherent of environmental determinism, dispelled this theory as a myth. He wrote that black skin was due to the hot climate of [[sub-Saharan Africa]] and not due to the descendants of Ham being cursed.<ref>{{citation|title='Race', slavery and Islam in Maghribi Mediterranean thought: the question of the Haratin in Morocco|first=Chouki|last=El Hamel|journal=The Journal of North African Studies|volume=7|issue=3|year=2002|pages=29–52 [39–42]}}</ref>
 
In the 9th century, [[Al-Jahiz]], an [[Afro-Arab]] [[Medicine in medieval Islam|biologist]] and [[Early Islamic philosophy|Islamic philosopher]], the grandson of a [[Zanj]] ([[Bantu peoples|Bantu]]) slave,<ref name="Ogot">Bethwell A. Ogot, ''Zamani: A Survey of East African History'', (East African Publishing House: 1974), p.104</ref><ref>Cyril Glasse, ''The New Encyclopedia of Islam'', (Rowman & Littlefield Publishers: 2008), p.631</ref><ref>Bernard Lewis, ''The Political Language of Islam'', (University of Chicago Press: 1991), p.466</ref> was an early adherent of [[environmental determinism]] and explained how the environment can determine the physical characteristics of the inhabitants of a certain community. He used his theories on the [[Natural selection|struggle for existence]] and environmental determinism to explain the origins of different [[human skin color]]s, particularly [[Black people|black skin]], which he believed to be the result of the environment. He cited a stony region of black [[basalt]] in the northern [[Najd]] as evidence for his theory:<ref>Lawrence I. Conrad (1982), "Taun and Waba: Conceptions of Plague and Pestilence in Early Islam", ''Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient'' '''25''' (3): 268-307 [278]</ref>
 
{{quote|"[It] is so unusual that its gazelles and ostriches, its insects and flies, its foxes, sheep and asses, its horses and its birds are all black. Blackness and whiteness are in fact caused by the properties of the region, as well as by the God-given nature of water and soil and by the proximity or remoteness of the sun and the intensity or mildness of its heat."}}
 
===Age of Discovery===
The word "race", along with many of the ideas now associated with the term, were first coined during the [[age of exploration]], a time of [[European imperialism]], exploration, technological superiority and [[colonization]].<ref>A. Smedley (1999) Race in North America: origin and evolution of a worldview, 2nd ed. Westview Press, Boulder</ref> As Europeans encountered people from different parts of the [[world]], they speculated about the physical, social, and cultural differences among various human groups. The rise of the [[Atlantic slave trade]], which gradually displaced an earlier [[slave trade|trade in slave]]s from throughout the world, created a further [[incentive]] to categorize human groups to justify the subordination of African [[slave]]s.<ref>Meltzer M (1993) Slavery: a world history, rev ed. DaCapo Press, Cambridge, MA
</ref> Drawing on Classical sources and on their own internal interactions &mdash; for example, the hostility between the [[English people|English]] and [[Irish people|Irish]] &mdash; was a powerful influence on early thinking about the differences between people<ref>Takaki R (1993) A different mirror: a history of multicultural America. Little, Brown, Boston</ref>&mdash; Europeans began to sort themselves and others into groups associated with physical appearance and with deeply ingrained behaviors and capacities. A set of [[folklore|folk]] [[beliefs]] took hold that linked inherited physical differences between groups to inherited [[intellect]]ual, [[behavioral]], and [[moral]] qualities.<ref>Banton M (1977) The idea of race. Westview Press, Boulder</ref> Although similar ideas can be found in other cultures (Lewis 1990; Dikötter 1992), they appear not to have had as much influence on their social structures as was found in Europe and the parts of the world colonized by Europeans, although conflicts between ethnic groups have existed throughout history and across the world.
 
=== Scientific concepts ===
{{further|[[Race (historical definitions)]], [[Scientific racism]], [[Craniofacial anthropometry]]}}
 
The first scientific attempts to classify humans by categories of race date from the 17th century. {{Citation needed|date=September 2009}} The first post-[[Graeco-Roman|Classical]] published classification of humans into distinct races seems to be [[François Bernier]]'s ''Nouvelle division de la terre par les différents espèces ou races qui l'habitent'' ("New division of Earth by the different species or races which inhabit it"), published in 1684.
 
=== 17th and 18th century ===
According to philosopher [[Michel Foucault]], theories of both racial and class conflict can be traced to 17th century political debates about innate differences among ethnicities. In England, radicals such as [[John Lilburne]] emphasised conflicts between [[Anglo-Saxons|Saxon]] and [[Normans|Norman]] peoples. In France, [[Henri de Boulainvilliers]] argued that the Germanic [[Franks]] possessed a natural right to leadership, in contrast to descendants of the [[Gauls]]. In the 18th century, the differences among human groups became a focus of scientific investigation (Todorov 1993). Initially, scholars focused on cataloguing and describing "[[The Natural Varieties of Mankind]]," as [[Johann Friedrich Blumenbach]] entitled his 1775 text (which established the five major divisions of humans still reflected in some racial classifications, i.e., the [[Caucasoid race]], [[Mongoloid race]], [[Africoid race|Ethiopian race]] (later termed the [[Negroid]] race), [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|American Indian race]], and [[Malayan race]]). From the 17th through the 19th centuries, the merging of folk beliefs about group differences with scientific explanations of those differences produced what one scholar has called an "[[ideology]] of race".<ref>Smedley A (1999) Race in North America: origin and evolution of a worldview, 2nd ed. Westview Press, Boulder </ref> According to this ideology, races are primordial, natural, enduring and distinct. It was further argued that some groups may be the result of mixture between formerly distinct populations, but that careful study could distinguish the ancestral races that had combined to produce admixed groups.
 
=== 19th century ===
[[Image:Huxley races.png|thumb|300px|[[Thomas Henry Huxley|Huxley]]'s map of racial categories from ''On the Geographical Distribution of the Chief Modifications of Mankind'' ([[1870]]). {{legend|#a14308|1: [[Capoid|Bushmen]]}}
{{legend|#682b05|2: [[Negroid|Negroes]]}}
{{legend|#060606|3: [[Negrito]]es}}
{{legend|#ffcccc|4: [[Mediterranean race|Melanochroi]]}}
{{legend|#328a85|5: [[Australoid]]s}}
{{legend|#ff0000|6: [[White people|Xanthochroi]]}}
{{legend|#efc417|7: [[Pacific Islander|Polynesians]]}}
{{legend|#c6520a|8: [[Mongoloid|Mongoloids A]]}}
{{legend|#cb780a|8: [[Mongoloid|Mongoloids B]]}}
{{legend|#cb970a|8: [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Mongoloids C]]}}
{{legend|#f9b90d|9: [[Eskimo|Esquimaux]]}}
Huxley states: 'It is to the Xanthochroi and Melanochroi, taken together, that the absurd denomination of "Caucasian" is usually applied'.<ref>[[Thomas Henry Huxley|Huxley, T. H.]] "[http://aleph0.clarku.edu/huxley/SM3/GeoDis.html On the Geographical Distribution of the Chief Modifications of Mankind]" (1870) ''Journal of the Ethnological Society of London''</ref>]]
 
The 19th century saw attempts to change race from a taxonomic to a biological concept. In the 19th century, several [[natural science|natural scientists]] wrote on race: [[Georges Cuvier]], [[Charles Darwin]], [[Alfred Wallace]], [[Francis Galton]], [[James Cowles Pritchard]], [[Louis Agassiz]], [[Charles Pickering NMI|Charles Pickering]], and [[Johann Friedrich Blumenbach]]. As the science of [[anthropology]] took shape in the 19th century, European and American scientists increasingly sought explanations for the behavioral and cultural differences they attributed to groups (Stanton 1960). For example, using [[anthropometrics]], invented by Francis Galton and [[Alphonse Bertillon]], they measured the shapes and sizes of skulls and related the results to group differences in intelligence or other attributes (Lieberman 2001).
 
These scientists made three claims about race: first, races are objective, naturally occurring divisions of humanity; second, there is a strong relationship between biological races and other human phenomena (such as [[forms of activity and interpersonal relations]] and culture, and by extension the relative [[materialism|material success]] of cultures), thus biologizing the notion of race, as Foucault demonstrated in his historical analysis; third, race is therefore a valid scientific category that can be used to explain and predict individual and group behavior. Races were distinguished by [[human skin color|skin color]], [[facial type]], [[cranium|cranial]] profile and size, texture and color of hair. Moreover, races were almost universally considered to reflect group differences in moral character and [[intelligence (trait)|intelligence]].
 
The [[eugenics]] movement of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, inspired by [[Arthur Gobineau]]'s ''[[An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races]]'' (1853–1855) and [[Vacher de Lapouge]]'s "anthroposociology", asserted as self-evident the biological inferiority of particular groups (Kevles 1985). In many parts of the world, the idea of race became a way of rigidly dividing groups by culture as well as by physical appearances (Hannaford 1996). Campaigns of oppression and [[genocide]] were often motivated by supposed racial differences (Horowitz 2001).
 
In [[Charles Darwin]]'s most controversial book, ''[[The Descent of Man]]'', he made strong suggestions of racial differences and European superiority. In Darwin's view, stronger tribes of humans always replaced weaker tribes. As savage tribes came in conflict with civilized nations, such as England, the less advanced people were destroyed.<ref>Charles Darwin, [http://www.literature.org/authors/darwin-charles/the-descent-of-man/chapter-07.html ''The Descent of Man'', Chapter 7 - On the Races of Man.] Consider, for instance, the following excerpt: "We thus see that many of the wilder races of man are apt to suffer much in health when subjected to changed conditions or habits of life, and not exclusively from being transported to a new climate. Mere alterations in habits, which do not appear injurious in themselves, seem to have this same effect; and in several cases the children are particularly liable to suffer. It has often been said, as Mr. Macnamara remarks, that man can resist with impunity the greatest diversities of climate and other changes; but this is true only of the civilised races."</ref> Nevertheless, he also noted the great difficulty naturalists had in trying to decide how many "races" there actually were (Darwin was himself a [[monogenesis|monogenist]] on the question of race, believing that all humans were of the same species and finding race to be a somewhat arbitrary distinction among some groups):
<blockquote>Man has been studied more carefully than any other animal, and yet there is the greatest possible diversity amongst capable judges whether he should be classed as a single species or race, or as two (Virey), as three (Jacquinot), as four (Kant), five (Blumenbach), six (Buffon), seven (Hunter), eight (Agassiz), eleven (Pickering), fifteen (Bory St. Vincent), sixteen (Desmoulins), twenty-two (Morton), sixty (Crawfurd), or as sixty-three, according to Burke. This diversity of judgment does not prove that the races ought not to be ranked as species, but it shows that they graduate into each other, and that it is hardly possible to discover clear distinctive characters between them.<ref>Darwin, C. (1871/1874). The Descent of Man, 2nd. Ed., London: John Murray.</ref>
</blockquote>
 
===20th century===
The 20th century racial classification by American anthropologist [[Carleton S. Coon]], divided humanity into five races:
 
{{Carleton S. Coon Racial Definitions}}
 
In his landmark book ''[[The Races of Europe]]'', Coon defined the [[Caucasian Race]] as encompassing the regions of [[Europe]], [[Central Asia]], [[South Asia]], the [[Middle East]], [[North Africa]], and [[Horn of Africa|Northeast Africa]].<ref>Carleton S. Coon, [http://www.snpa.nordish.net/racesofeurope.htm ''The Origin of Races''], (New York: Knopf, 1962)</ref>
 
Coon and his work drew some charges of obsolete thinking or outright [[racism]] from a few critics, but some of the terminology he employed continues to be used even today, although the "-oid" suffixes now have in part taken on negative connotations.<ref>[http://www.bartleby.com/64/C006/057.html#RACE The American Heritage Book of English Usage]
A Practical and Authoritative Guide to Contemporary English. 1996. Entry on "Race"</ref>
 
In the 21st-Century, Coon's role came under further critical scrutiny when Prof. John P Jackon Jr, noted that the American Coon, "actively aided the segregationist cause in violation of his own standards for scientific objectivity."<ref>[http://www.springerlink.com/content/p88h611675861p41/ “In Ways Unacademical”: The Reception of Carleton S. Coon's The Origin of Races by Prof. John P Jackon Jr, from 'Journal of the History of Biology' published 2001]</ref>
 
== Modern debates ==
=== Models of human evolution ===
{{See also|Multiregional hypothesis}}
{{See also|Recent single origin hypothesis}}
 
In a 1995 article, [[Leonard Lieberman]] and [[Fatimah Jackson]] suggested that any new support for a biological concept of race will likely come from another source, namely, the study of human evolution. They therefore ask what, if any, implications current models of human evolution may have for any biological conception of race.<ref>Leonard Lieberman and Fatimah Linda C. Jackson (1995) "Race and Three Models of Human Origin" in ''­American Anthropologist'' Vol. 97, No. 2, pp. 232-234</ref>
 
Today, all [[humans]] are classified as belonging to the species ''Homo sapiens'' and sub-species ''Homo sapiens sapiens.'' However, this is not the first species of hominids: the first species of genus ''Homo'', [[Homo habilis]], evolved in East Africa at least 2 million years ago, and members of this species populated different parts of Africa in a relatively short time. ''[[Homo erectus]]'' evolved more than 1.8 million years ago, and by 1.5 million years ago had spread throughout Europe and Asia. Virtually all physical anthropologists agree that ''Homo sapiens'' evolved out of ''Homo erectus.'' Anthropologists have been divided as to whether ''Homo sapiens'' evolved as one interconnected species from ''H. erectus'' (called the Multiregional Model, or the Regional Continuity Model), or evolved only in East Africa, and then migrated out of Africa and replaced ''H. erectus'' populations throughout Europe and Asia (called the Out of Africa Model or the Complete Replacement Model). Anthropologists continue to debate both possibilities, and the evidence is technically ambiguous as to which model is correct, although most anthropologists currently favor the [[Recent African origin of modern humans|Out of Africa]] model.
 
Lieberman and Jackson argued that while advocates of both the Multiregional Model and the Out of Africa Model use the word race and make racial assumptions, none define the term.<ref>Leonard Lieberman and Fatimah Linda C. Jackson (1995) "Race and Three Models of Human Origin" in ''­American Anthropologist'' Vol. 97, No. 2, pp. 237</ref> They conclude that
"Each model has implications that both magnify and minimize the differences between races. Yet each model seems to take race and races as a conceptual reality. The net result is that those anthropologists who prefer to view races as a reality are encouraged to do so" and conclude that students of human evolution would be better off avoiding the word race, and instead describe genetic differences in terms of populations and clinal gradations.<ref>Leonard Lieberman and Fatimah Linda C. Jackson (1995) "Race and Three Models of Human Origin" in ''­American Anthropologist'' Vol. 97, No. 2, pp. 239</ref>
 
=== Race as subspecies ===
{{further|[[Race (biology)]], [[Species]], [[Subspecies]], [[Systematics]], [[Phylogenetics]], [[Cladistics]].}}
 
With the advent of the [[modern synthesis]] in the early 20th century, many biologists sought to use evolutionary models and populations genetics in an attempt to formalise taxonomy. The Biological Species Concept (BSC) is the most widely used system for describing species, this concept defines a species as a group of organisms that interbreed in their natural environment and produce viable offspring. In practice, species are not classified according to the BSC but according to [[Biological type|typology]] by the use of a [[holotype]], due to the difficulty of determining whether all members of a group of organisms do or can in practice potentially interbreed.<ref name="LITU">Pleijel, F. and Rouse, G., W. (2000) "Least-inclusive taxonomic unit: a new taxonomic concept for biology" ''[[Proceedings of the Royal Society]]'' '''267:''' 627–630 [http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/picrender.fcgi?artid=1690571&blobtype=pdf PDF]</ref> BSC species are routinely classified on a subspecific level, though this classification is conducted differently for different taxons, for mammals the normal taxonomic unit below the species level is usually the subspecies.<ref name="conservation">SUSAN M. HAIG, ERIK A. BEEVER, STEVEN M. CHAMBERS, HOPE M. DRAHEIM, BRUCE D. DUGGER, SUSIE DUNHAM,§ ELISE ELLIOTT-SMITH, JOSEPH B. FONTAINE, DYLAN C. KESLER, BRIAN J. KNAUS, IARA F. LOPES, PETE LOSCHL, THOMAS D. MULLINS, AND LISA M. SHEFFIELD (2006) "Taxonomic Considerations in Listing Subspecies Under the U.S. Endangered Species Act" ''Conservation Biology'' '''20:''' 1584–1594 {{doi|10.1111/j.1523-1739.2006.00530.x}}</ref> More recently the Phylogenetic Species Concept (PSC) has gained a substantial following. The PSC is based on the idea of a least-inclusive taxonomic unit (LITU), in phylogenetic classification no subspecies can exist because they would automatically constitute a LITU (any monophyletic group). Technically species cease to exist as do all hierarchical [[Taxon|taxa]], a LITU is effectively defined as any monophyletic taxon, phylogenetics is strongly influenced by [[cladistics]] which classifies organisms based on evolution rather than similarities between groups of organisms.<ref name="LITU"/> In biology the term "race" is used with caution because it can be ambiguous, "'Race' is not being defined or used consistently; its referents are varied and shift depending on context. The term is often used colloquially to refer to a range of human groupings. Religious, cultural, social, national, ethnic, linguistic, genetic, geographical and anatomical groups have been and sometimes still are called 'races'".<ref name="Keita"/> Generally when it is used it is synonymous with subspecies.<ref name="Keita">Keita ''et al.'' 2004</ref><ref name="Templeton">Templeton, 1998</ref><ref>Long and Kittles, 2003</ref> One main obstacle to identifying subspecies is that, while it is a recognised taxonomic term, it has no precise definition.<ref name="Templeton"/>
 
Species of organisms that are monotypic (i.e., form a single subspecies) display at least one of these properties:
* All members of the species are very similar and cannot be sensibly divided into biologically significant subcategories.
* The individuals vary considerably but the variation is essentially random and largely meaningless so far as genetic transmission of these variations is concerned (many plant species fit into this category, which is why horticulturists interested in preserving, say, a particular flower color avoid propagation from seed, and instead use vegetative methods like propagation from cuttings).
* The variation among individuals is noticeable and follows a pattern, but there are no clear dividing lines among separate groups: they fade imperceptibly into one another. Such clinal variation displays a lack of [[Allopatry|allopatric]] partition between groups (i.e., a clearly defined boundary demarcating the subspecies), which is usually required before they are recognised as subspecies.<ref name="meyr">O'Brien, S., J. and Meyr, E. (1991) "Bureaucratic mischief: recognizing endangered species and subspecies." ''[[Science (journal)|Science]]'' '''251:''' 1187-1190 [http://www.life.uiuc.edu/ib/451/OBrien%20(1991).pdf PDF]</ref>
 
A ''polytypic'' species has two or more subspecies. These are separate populations that are more genetically different from one another and that are more reproductively isolated, gene flow between these populations is much reduced leading to genetic differentiation.
 
====Morphological subspecies====
Traditionally subspecies are seen as geographically isolated and genetically differentiated populations.<ref name="Templeton"/> Or to put it another way "the designation 'subspecies' is used to indicate an objective degree of [[microevolutionary]] divergence"<ref name="Keita"/> One objection to this idea is that it does not identify any degree of differentiation. Therefore, any population that is somewhat biologically different could be considered a subspecies, even to the level of a local population. As a result it is necessary to impose a threshold on the level of difference that is required for a population to be designated a subspecies.<ref name="Templeton"/> This effectively means that populations of organisms must have reached a certain measurable level of difference to be recognised as subspecies.
[[Dean Amadon]] proposed in 1949 that subspecies would be defined according to the seventy-five percent rule which means that 75% of a population must lie outside 99% of the range of other populations for a given defining [[morphology (biology)|morphological]] character or a set of characters. The seventy-five percent rule still has defenders but other scholars argue that it should be replaced with ninety or ninety-five percent rule.<ref>AMADON, D. 1949. The seventy-five percent rule for subspecies. Condor 51:250-258.</ref><ref>MAYR, E. 1969. Principles of Systematic Zoology. McGraw-Hill, New York.</ref><ref>Patten MA & Unitt P. (2002). Diagnosability versus mean differences of sage sparrow subspecies. Auk. vol 119, no 1. p. 26-35.</ref>
 
In 1978, [[Sewall Wright]] suggested that human populations that have long inhabited separated parts of the world should, in general, be considered different subspecies by the usual criterion that most individuals of such populations can be allocated correctly by inspection. It does not require a trained anthropologist to classify an array of Englishmen, West Africans, and Chinese with 100% accuracy by features, skin color, and type of hair despite so much variability within each of these groups that every individual can easily be distinguished from every other. However, it is customary to use the term race rather than subspecies for the major subdivisions of the human species as well as for minor ones.<ref>Wright, S. 1978. Evolution and the Genetics of Populations, Vol. 4, Variability Within and Among Natural Populations. Univ. Chicago Press, Chicago, Illinois. p. 438</ref>
 
On the other hand in practice subspecies are often defined by easily observable physical appearance, but there is not necessarily any evolutionary significance to these observed differences, so this form of classification has become less acceptable to evolutionary biologists.<ref name="Keita"/><ref name="Templeton"/> Likewise this [[Typology (anthropology)|typological]] approach to race is generally regarded as discredited by biologists and anthropologists.
 
Because of the difficulty in classifying subspecies morphologically, many biologists reject the concept altogether, citing problems such as:<ref name="Keita"/>
 
*Visible physical differences do not correlate with one another, leading to the possibility of different classifications for the same individual organisms.<ref name="Keita"/>
*Parallel evolution can lead to the existence of the appearance of similarities between groups of organisms that are not part of the same species.<ref name="Keita"/>
*The existence of isolated populations within previously designated subspecies.<ref name="Keita"/>
*That the criteria for classification are arbitrary.<ref name="Keita"/>
 
====Subspecies genetically differentiated populations====
 
Another way to look at differences between populations is to measure genetic differences rather than physical differences. The [[Human Genome Project]] found only gradations in genetic variation, not sharp lines which would naturally define notions of race or ethnicity. "People who have lived in the same geographic region for many generations may have some alleles in common, but no allele will be found in all members of one population and in no members of any other."<ref>[http://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/elsi/minorities.shtml Human Genome Project Information: Minorities, Race, and Genomics]</ref>
 
Genetic differences between populations of organisms can be measured using the [[fixation index]] of [[Sewall Wright]], which is often abbreviated to F<sub>ST</sub>. This statistic is used to compare differences between any two given populations and can be used to measure genetic differences between populations for individual genes, or for many genes simultaneously.<ref name="graves">Joseph L. Graves, (2006) ''[http://raceandgenomics.ssrc.org/Graves/ What We Know and What We Don’t Know: Human Genetic Variation and the Social Construction of Race]'' from ''[http://raceandgenomics.ssrc.org/ Race and Genomics]''</ref> For example it is often stated that the fixation index for humans is about 0.15. This means that about 85% of the variation measured in the human population is within any population, and about 15% of the variation occurs between populations, or that any two individuals from different populations are almost as likely to be more similar to each other than either is to a member of their own group.<ref name="Keita"/><ref name="Templeton"/> It is often stated that human genetic variation is low compared to other mammalian species, and it has been claimed that this should be taken as evidence that there is no natural subdivision of the human population.<ref name="REGWG">''[http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=1275602 The Use of Racial, Ethnic, and Ancestral Categories in Human Genetics Research]'' by Race, Ethnicity, and Genetics Working Group. ''Am J Hum Genet.'' 2005 '''77'''(4): 519–532.</ref><ref>''[http://www.fiu.edu/~biology/pcb5665/RACEgen.pdf DECONSTRUCTING THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN GENETICS AND RACE]{{Dead link|date=April 2009}}'' Michael Bamshad, Stephen Wooding, Benjamin A. Salisbury and J. Claiborne Stephens. ''Nature Genetics'' (2004) '''5''':598-609</ref><ref>[http://www.nature.com/ng/journal/v36/n11s/full/ng1455.html Conceptualizing human variation]'' by S O Y Keita, 2, R A Kittles1, C D M Royal, G E Bonney, P Furbert-Harris, G M Dunston & C N Rotimi. ''Nature Genetics'' '''36''', S17 - S20 (2004)</ref><ref>''[http://www.nature.com/ng/journal/v36/n11s/full/ng1438.html Implications of biogeography of human populations for 'race' and medicine]'' by Sarah A Tishkoff & Kenneth K Kidd. ''Nature Genetics'' '''36''', S21 - S27 (2004)</ref><ref>''[http://www.nature.com/ng/journal/v36/n11s/full/ng1435.html Genetic variation, classification and 'race']'' by Lynn B Jorde & Stephen P Wooding. ''Nature Genetics' '''36''', S28 - S33 (2004)</ref> Wright himself believed that a value of 0.25 represented great genetic variation and that an F<sub>ST</sub> of 0.15-0.25 represented moderate variation. It should, however, be noted that about 5% of human variation occurs between populations within continents, and therefore the F<sub>ST</sub> between continental groups of humans (or races) is as low as 0.1 (or possibly lower).<ref name="graves"/>
 
In their 2003 paper "Human Genetic Diversity and the Nonexistence of Biological Races"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/human_biology/v075/75.4long.pdf |title=Project MUSE - Human Biology - Human Genetic Diversity and the Nonexistence of Biological Races |publisher=Muse.jhu.edu |date= |accessdate=2009-04-18}}</ref> Jeffrey Long and Rick Kittles give a long critique of the application of F<sub>ST</sub> to human populations. They find that the figure of 85% is misleading because it implies that all human populations contain on average 85% of all genetic diversity. They claim that this does not correctly reflect human population history, because it treats all human groups as independent. A more realistic portrayal of the way human groups are related is to understand that some human groups are parental to other groups and that these groups represent [[paraphyly|paraphyletic]] groups to their descent groups. For example, under the [[recent African origin]] theory the human population in Africa is paraphyletic to all other human groups because it represents the ancestral group from which all non-African populations derive, but more than that, non-African groups only derive from a small non-representative sample of this African population. This means that all non-African groups are more closely related to each other and to some African groups (probably east Africans) than they are to others, and further that the migration out of Africa represented a [[genetic bottleneck]], with much of the diversity that existed in Africa not being carried out of Africa by the emigrating groups. This view produces a version of human population movements that do not result in all human populations being independent; but rather, produces a series of dilutions of diversity the further from Africa any population lives, each founding event representing a genetic subset of its parental population. Long and Kittles find that rather than 85% of human genetic diversity existing in all human populations, about 100% of human diversity exists in a single African population, whereas only about 70% of human genetic diversity exists in a population derived from New Guinea. Long and Kittles make the observation that this still produces a global human population that is genetically homogeneous compared to other mammalian populations.
 
Wright's F statistics are not used to determine whether a group can be described as a subspecies or not, though the statistic is used to measure the degree of differentiation between populations, the degree of genetic differentiation is not a marker of subspecies status.<ref name="graves"/> Generally taxonomists prefer to use phylogenetic analysis to determine whether a population can be considered a subspecies. Phylogenetic analysis relies on the concept of derived characteristics that are not shared between groups, usually applying to populations that are [[Allopatric speciation|allopatric]] (geographically separated) and therefore discretely bounded. This would make a subspecies, evolutionarily speaking, a [[clade]] - a group with a common evolutionary ancestory population.<ref name="Templeton"/> The smooth gradation of human genetic variation in general rules out any idea that human population groups can be considered monophyletic (cleanly divided) as there appears to always have been considerable gene flow between human populations.<ref name="Templeton"/>
 
====Subspecies as clade====
By the 1970s many evolutionary scientists were avoiding the concept of "subspecies" as a [[taxonomy|taxonomic]] category for four reasons:
* very few data indicate that contiguous subspecies ever become species {{Citation needed|date=June 2007}}
* geographically disjunct groups regarded as subspecies usually can be demonstrated to actually be distinct species {{Citation needed|date=June 2007}}
* subspecies had been recognized on the basis of only 2-5 [[phenotypic]] characters, which often were adaptations to local environments but which did not reflect the evolutionary differentiation of populations as a whole {{Citation needed|date=June 2007}}
* with the advent of molecular techniques used to get a better handle on genetic introgression (gene flow), the picture afforded by looking at genetic variation was often at odds with the phenotypic variation (as is the case with looking at genes versus percentage of epidermal [[melanin]] in human populations){{Citation needed|date=June 2007}}
These criticisms have coincided with the rise of [[cladistics]]
 
A [[clade]] is a taxonomic group of organisms consisting of a single common ancestor and all the descendants of that ancestor. Every creature produced by sexual reproduction has two immediate lineages, one maternal and one paternal.<ref>http://www.anthrosource.net/doi/abs/10.1525/an.2006.47.2.7?journalCode=an accessed June 2007</ref> Whereas [[Carolus Linnaeus]] established a taxonomy of living organisms based on anatomical similarities and differences, [[cladistics]] seeks to establish a taxonomy &mdash; the [[phylogenetic tree]] &mdash; based on genetic similarities and differences and tracing the process of acquisition of multiple characteristics by single organisms. Some researchers have tried to clarify the idea of race by equating it to the biological idea of the [[clade]]:
 
[[Image:Human evolutionary tree.jpg|center|500px|thumb|<center>Human evolutionary tree</center>]]
{{clr}}
A [[phylogenetic tree]] like the one shown above is usually derived from [[DNA]] or [[protein]] [[DNA sequence|sequences]] from populations. Often [[mitochondrial DNA]] or [[Y-chromosomal Adam|Y chromosome]] sequences are used to study ancient human migration paths. These single-locus sources of DNA do not [[genetic recombination|recombine]] and are inherited from a single parent. Individuals from the various continental groups tend to be more similar to one another than to people from other continents, and tracing either mitochondrial DNA or non-recombinant Y-chromosome DNA explains how people in one place may be largely derived from people in some remote location. The tree is rooted in the common ancestor of [[chimpanzee]]s and humans, which is believed to have originated in [[Africa]]. Horizontal distance corresponds to two things:
 
#'''Genetic distance'''. Given below the diagram, the genetic difference between humans and chimpanzees is roughly 2%, or 20 times larger than the variation among modern humans.
#'''Temporal remoteness''' of the most recent common ancestor. Rough estimates are given above the diagram, in millions of years. The [[mitochondrial]] most recent common ancestor of modern humans lived roughly 200,000 years ago, latest common ancestors of humans and chimpanzees between four and seven million years ago.
 
Chimpanzees and humans belong to different [[genus|genera]], indicated in Blue. Formation of [[species]] and [[subspecies]] is also indicated, and the formation of "races" is indicated in the green rectangle to the right (note that only a very rough representation of human [[phylogeny]] is given, and the points made in the preceding section, insofar as they apply to an "African race", are understood here). Note that vertical distances are not meaningful in this representation.
 
[[Image:Neighbor-joining Tree.svg|thumb|right|350px|This genetic distance map made in 2002 is an estimate of 18 world human groups by a [[neighbour-joining]] method based on 23 kinds of genetic information.<ref>[http://www.museum.kyushu-u.ac.jp/WAJIN/113.html Saitou. Kyushu Museum. 2002. February 2, 2007]</ref>]]
 
Most evolutionary scientists have rejected the identification of races with clades for two reasons. First, as Rachel Caspari (2003) argued, clades are by definition monophyletic groups (a taxon that includes ''all'' descendants of a given ancestor) since no groups currently regarded as races are monophyletic, none of those groups can be clades.
 
For anthropologists Lieberman and Jackson (1995), however, there are more profound methodological and conceptual problems with using cladistics to support concepts of race. They emphasize that "the molecular and biochemical proponents of this model explicitly use racial categories ''in their initial grouping of samples''". For example, the large and highly diverse macroethnic groups of East Indians, North Africans, and Europeans are presumptively grouped as Caucasians prior to the analysis of their DNA variation. This limits and skews interpretations, obscures other lineage relationships, deemphasizes the impact of more immediate clinal environmental factors on genomic diversity, and can cloud our understanding of the true patterns of affinity.
They argue that however significant the empirical research, these studies use the term race in conceptually imprecise and careless ways. They suggest that the authors of these studies find support for racial distinctions only because they began by assuming the validity of race.
<blockquote>For empirical reasons we prefer to place emphasis on clinal variation, which recognizes the existence of adaptive human hereditary variation and simultaneously stresses that such variation is not found in packages that can be labeled ''races''.<ref>''Race and Three Models of Human Origin'', Lieberman and Jackson (1995).</ref></blockquote>
 
Indeed, recent research reports evidence for smooth, clinal genetic variation even in regions previously considered racially homogeneous, with the apparent gaps turning out to be artifacts of sampling techniques (Serre & Pääbo 2004). These scientists do not dispute the importance of cladistic research, only its retention of the word race, when reference to populations and clinal gradations are more than adequate to describe the results.
 
=== Population genetics: population and cline ===
At the beginning of the 20th century, anthropologists questioned, and eventually abandoned, the claim that biologically distinct races are isomorphic with distinct linguistic, cultural, and social groups. Shortly thereafter, the rise of [[population genetics]] provided scientists with a new understanding of the sources of phenotypic variation. This new science has led many mainstream evolutionary scientists in [[anthropology]] and [[biology]] to question the very validity of race as a scientific concept describing an objectively real phenomenon. Those who came to reject the validity of the concept of race did so for four reasons: empirical, definitional, the availability of alternative concepts, and ethical (Lieberman and Byrne 1993).
 
The first to challenge the concept of race on empirical grounds were [[anthropology|anthropologists]] [[Franz Boas]], who demonstrated phenotypic plasticity due to environmental factors (Boas 1912), and [[Ashley Montagu]] (1941, 1942), who relied on evidence from genetics. [[Zoology|Zoologists]] Edward O. Wilson and W. Brown then challenged the concept from the perspective of general animal systematics, and further rejected the claim that "races" were equivalent to "subspecies" (Wilson and Brown 1953).
 
====Clines====
One crucial innovation in reconceptualizing genotypic and phenotypic variation was anthropologist C. Loring Brace's observation that such variations, insofar as it is affected by [[natural selection]], migration, or [[genetic drift]], are distributed along geographic gradations or [[wiktionary:cline|clines]] (Brace 1964). This point called attention to a problem common to phenotype-based descriptions of races (for example, those based on hair texture and skin color): they ignore a host of other similarities and differences (for example, blood type) that do not correlate highly with the markers for race. Thus, anthropologist Frank Livingstone's conclusion, that since clines cross racial boundaries, "there are no races, only clines" (Livingstone 1962: 279).
 
In a response to Livingston, [[Theodore Dobzhansky]] argued that when talking about race one must be attentive to how the term is being used: "I agree with Dr. Livingston that if races have to be 'discrete units,' then there are no races, and if 'race' is used as an 'explanation' of the human variability, rather than vice versa, then the explanation is invalid." He further argued that one could use the term race if one distinguished between "race differences" and "the race concept." The former refers to any distinction in gene frequencies between populations; the latter is "a matter of judgment." He further observed that even when there is clinal variation, "Race differences are objectively ascertainable biological phenomena ... but it does not follow that racially distinct populations must be given racial (or subspecific) labels."<ref>Theodosious Dobzhansky "Comment" in ''Current Anthropology'' 3(3): 279-280</ref> In short, Livingston and Dobzhansky agree that there are genetic differences among human beings; they also agree that the use of the race concept to classify people, and how the race concept is used, is a matter of social convention. They differ on whether the race concept remains a meaningful and useful social convention.
 
In 1964, biologists Paul Ehrlich and Holm pointed out cases where two or more clines are distributed discordantly&mdash;for example, melanin is distributed in a decreasing pattern from the equator north and south; frequencies for the haplotype for beta-S hemoglobin, on the other hand, radiate out of specific geographical points in Africa (Ehrlich and Holm 1964). As anthropologists Leonard Lieberman and Fatimah Linda Jackson observed, "Discordant patterns of heterogeneity falsify any description of a population as if it were genotypically or even phenotypically homogeneous" (Lieverman and Jackson 1995).
 
Patterns such as those seen in human physical and genetic variation as described above, have led to the consequence that the number and geographic location of any described races is highly dependent on the importance attributed to, and quantity of, the traits considered. For example, if only skin color and a "two race" system of classification were used, then one might classify [[Indigenous Australians]] in the same race as [[Black people]], and [[Caucasian race|Caucasians]] in the same race as [[East Asian]] people, but biologists and anthropologists would dispute that these classifications have any scientific validity. Scientists discovered a skin-whitening mutation that partially accounts for the appearance of white skin in humans (people who migrated out of Africa northward into what is now Europe) which they estimate occurred 20,000 to 50,000 years ago. The East Asians owe their relatively light skin to different mutations.<ref>[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/12/15/AR2005121501728.html Scientists Find A DNA Change That Accounts For White Skin], The Washington Post, December 16, 2005</ref> On the other hand, the greater the number of traits (or [[allele]]s) considered, the more subdivisions of humanity are detected, since traits and gene frequencies do not always correspond to the same geographical location. Or as Ossario and Duster (2005) put it:{{quotation|Anthropologists long ago discovered that humans' physical traits vary gradually, with groups that are close geographic neighbors being more similar than groups that are geographically separated. This pattern of variation, known as clinal variation, is also observed for many alleles that vary from one human group to another. Another observation is that traits or alleles that vary from one group to another do not vary at the same rate. This pattern is referred to as nonconcordant variation. Because the variation of physical traits is clinal and nonconcordant, anthropologists of the late 19th and early 20th centuries discovered that the more traits and the more human groups they measured, the fewer discrete differences they observed among races and the more categories they had to create to classify human beings. The number of races observed expanded to the 30s and 50s, and eventually anthropologists concluded that there were no discrete races (Marks, 2002). Twentieth and 21st century biomedical researchers have discovered this same feature when evaluating human variation at the level of alleles and allele frequencies. Nature has not created four or five distinct, nonoverlapping genetic groups of people.<ref name="duster">Pilar Ossorio and Troy Duster (2006) ''Race and Genetics Controversies in Biomedical, Behavioral, and Forensic Sciences'' ''American Psychologist'' '''60''' 115–128 {{doi|10.1037/0003-066X.60.1.115}}</ref>}}
 
More recent genetic studies indicate that skin color may change radically over as few as 25 generations, or about 2,500 years, given the influence of the environment. <ref>[http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=100057939 Your Family May Once Have Been A Different Color] by Robert Krulwich. Morning Edition, National Public Radio. 2 Feb 2009.</ref>
 
====Populations====
Population geneticists have debated as to whether the concept of population can provide a basis for a new conception of race. In order to do this, a working definition of population must be found. Surprisingly, there is no generally accepted concept of population that biologists use. It has been pointed out that the concept of population is central to ecology, evolutionary biology and conservation biology, but also that most definitions of population rely on qualitative descriptions such as "a group of organisms of the same species occupying a particular space at a particular time"<ref name="waples">''What is a population? An empirical evaluation of some genetic methods for identifying the number of gene pools and their degree of connectivity.'' by ROBIN S. WAPLES and OSCAR GAGGIOTTI. ''Molecular Ecology'' (2006) '''15''', 1419–1439. {{doi|10.1111/j.1365-294X.2006.02890.x}}</ref> Waples and Gaggiotti identify two broad types of definitions for populations; those that fall into an ''ecological paradigm'', and those that fall into an ''evolutionary paradigm''. Examples of such definitions are:
*''Ecological paradigm'': A group of individuals of the same species that co-occur in space and time and have an opportunity to interact with each other.
*''Evolutionary paradigm'': A group of individuals of the same species living in close-enough proximity that any member of the group can potentially mate with any other member.<ref name="waples"/>
 
[[Richard Lewontin]], claiming that 85 percent of human variation occurs within populations and not among populations, argued that neither "race" nor "subspecies" were appropriate or useful ways to describe populations (Lewontin 1973). Nevertheless, barriers—which may be cultural or physical— between populations can limit gene flow and increase genetic differences. Recent work by population geneticists conducting research in Europe suggests that ethnic identity can be a barrier to gene flow.<ref>Koertvelyessy, TA and MT Nettleship 1996 Ethnicity and mating structure in Southwestern Hungary. Rivista di Antropologia (Roma) 74:45-53</ref><ref>Koertvelyessy, T 1995 Etnicity, isonymic relationships, and biological distance in Northeastern Hungary. Homo 46/1:1-9.</ref><ref>Pettener. D 1990 Temporal trends in marital structure and isonymy in S. Paolo Albanese, Italy. Human Biology 6:837-851.</ref><ref>Biondi, G, P Raspe, GW Lasker, and GGN Mascie-Taylor 1990 Relationships estimated by isonymy among the Italo-Greco villages of southern Italy. Human Biology 62:649-663.</ref> Others, such as [[Ernst Mayr]], have argued for a notion of "geographic race" [http://www.goodrumj.com/Mayr.html]. Some researchers report the variation between racial groups (measured by [[Sewall Wright|Sewall Wright's]] population structure statistic F<sub>ST</sub>) accounts for as little as 5% of human genetic variation². [[Sewall Wright]] himself commented that if differences this large were seen in another species, they would be called subspecies.<ref>Wright S. 1978. Evolution and the Genetics of Populations, Vol. 4, Variability Within and Among Natural Populations. Chicago, II: Univ. Chicago Press</ref> In 2003 [[A. W. F. Edwards]] argued that cluster analysis supersedes Lewontin's arguments (see below).
 
These empirical challenges to the concept of race forced evolutionary sciences to reconsider their definition of race. Mid-century, anthropologist William Boyd defined race as:
:A population which differs significantly from other populations in regard to the frequency of one or more of the genes it possesses. It is an arbitrary matter which, and how many, gene loci we choose to consider as a significant "constellation" (Boyd 1950).
Lieberman and Jackson (1994) have pointed out that "the weakness of this statement is that if one gene can distinguish races then the number of races is as numerous as the number of human couples reproducing." Moreover, anthropologist Stephen Molnar has suggested that the discordance of clines inevitably results in a multiplication of races that renders the concept itself useless (Molnar 1992).
 
<!-- [[Image:Map of skin hue equi3.png|right|thumb|500px|[[Human skin color]] map. Data for native populations collected by R. Biasutti prior to 1940]] ***This map is discredited, plus it's ugly. I can make a better looking map, if I had the correct data [[User:Jeeny]] ***-->
 
The distribution of many physical traits resembles the distribution of genetic variation within and between human populations (American Association of Physical Anthropologists 1996; Keita and Kittles 1997). For example, ~90% of the variation in human head shapes occurs within every human group, and ~10% separates groups, with a greater variability of head shape among individuals with recent African ancestors (Relethford 2002).
 
=== Molecular genetics: lineages and clusters ===
{{Main|Human genetic variation|Human genetic clustering}}
With the recent availability of large amounts of human genetic data from many geographically distant human groups, scientists have again started to investigate the relationships between people from various parts of the world. One method is to investigate DNA molecules that are passed down from mother to child (mtDNA) or from father to son (Y chromosomes). These form molecular lineages and can be informative regarding prehistoric population migrations. Alternatively, autosomal alleles are investigated in an attempt to understand how much genetic material groups of people share. This work has led to a debate amongst geneticists, molecular anthropologists and medical doctors as to the validity of concepts such as race. Some researchers insist that classifying people into groups based on ancestry may be important from medical and social policy points of view, and claim to be able to do so accurately. Others claim that individuals from different groups share far too much of their genetic material for group membership to have any medical implications. This has reignited the scientific debate over the validity of human classification and concepts of race.
 
===Summary of different biological definitions of "race"===
 
{| class="wikitable" border="1"
|+ Biological definitions of race (Long & Kittles, 2003) ''et al.''
! Concept || Reference || Definition
|-
| Essentialist || Hooton (1926) || "A great division of mankind, characterized as a group by the sharing of a certain combination of features, which have been derived from their common descent, and constitute a vague physical background, usually more or less obscured by individual variations, and realized best in a composite picture."
|-
| Taxonomic || [[Ernst Mayr|Mayr]] (1969) || "An aggregate of phenotypically similar populations of a species, inhabiting a geographic subdivision of the range of a species, and differing taxonomically from other populations of the species."
|-
| Population || [[Theodosius Dobzhansky|Dobzhansky]] (1970) || "Races are genetically distinct Mendelian populations. They are neither individuals nor particular genotypes, they consist of individuals who differ genetically among themselves."
|-
| Lineage || Templeton (1998) || "A subspecies (race) is a distinct evolutionary lineage within a species. This definition requires that a subspecies be genetically differentiated due to barriers to genetic exchange that have persisted for long periods of time; that is, the subspecies must have historical continuity in addition to current genetic differentiation."
|}
 
=== Current views across disciplines ===
One result of debates over the meaning and validity of the concept of race is that the current literature across different disciplines regarding human variation lacks [[scientific consensus|consensus]], though within some fields, such as biology, there is strong consensus. Some studies use the word race in its early [[essentialism|essentialist]] [[taxonomic]] sense. Many others still use the term race, but use it to mean a population, [[clade]], or [[haplogroup]]. Others eschew the concept of race altogether, and use the concept of population as a less problematical unit of analysis.
 
Since 1932, some [[college]] [[textbook]]s introducing physical anthropology have increasingly come to reject race as a valid concept: from 1932 to 1976, only seven out of thirty-two rejected race; from 1975 to 1984, thirteen out of thirty-three rejected race; from 1985 to 1993, thirteen out of nineteen rejected race. According to one academic journal entry, where 78 percent of the articles in the 1931 ''Journal of Physical Anthropology'' employed these or nearly synonymous terms reflecting a bio-race paradigm, only 36 percent did so in 1965, and just 28 percent did in 1996.<ref>Leonard Lieberman, Rodney C. Kirk, and Alice Littlefield, "Perishing Paradigm: Race—1931-99," ''American Anthropologist'' 105, no. 1 (2003): 110-13. A following article in the same issue, by Mat Cartmill and Kaye Brown, questions the precise rate of decline, but from their biased perspective agree that the Negroid/Caucasoid/Mongoloid paradigm has fallen into near-total disfavor.</ref> The American Anthropological Association, drawing on biological research, currently holds that "The concept of race is a social and cultural construction... . Race simply cannot be tested or proven scientifically," and that, "It is clear that human populations are not unambiguous, clearly demarcated, biologically distinct groups. The concept of 'race' has no validity ... in the human species".<ref name="AAAonRace">{{cite web|url=http://www.aaanet.org/stmts/racepp.htm |title=American Anthropological Association Statement on "Race" |publisher=Aaanet.org |date=1998-05-17 |accessdate=2009-04-18}}</ref>
 
In an ongoing debate, some geneticists argue that race is neither a meaningful concept nor a useful [[heuristic]] device,<ref>(Wilson ''et al.'' 2001), (Cooper ''et al.'' 2003) (given in summary by Bamshad ''et al.'' 2004 p.599)</ref> and even that genetic differences among groups are biologically meaningless,<ref>(Schwartz 2001), (Stephens 2003) (given in summary by Bamshad ''et al.'' 2004 p.599)</ref> because more genetic variation exists within such races than among them, and that racial traits overlap without discrete boundaries.<ref>(Smedley and Smedley 2005), (Helms ''et al.'' 2005), [http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0102-311X2004000300003&lng=es&nrm=iso]. Lewontin, for example argues that there is no biological basis for race on the basis of research indicating that more genetic variation exists within such races than among them (Lewontin 1972).</ref>
Other geneticists, in contrast, argue that categories of self-identified race/ethnicity or biogeographic ancestry are both valid and useful,<ref>(Risch ''et al.'' 2002), (Bamshad 2005). [[Neil Risch]] argues: "One could make the same arguments about sex and age! ... you can undermine any definitional system... In a recent study... we actually had a higher discordance rate between self-reported sex and markers on the X chromosome [than] between genetic structure [based on microsatellite markers] versus [racial] self-description, [which had a] 99.9% concordance... So you could argue that sex is also a problematic category. And there are differences between sex and gender; self-identification may not be correlated with biology perfectly. And there is sexism. And you can talk about age the same way. A person's chronological age does not perfectly correspond to his biological age for a variety of reasons, both inherited and non-inherited. Perhaps just using someone's actual birth year is not a very good way of measuring age. Does that mean we should throw it out? ... Any category you come up with is going to be imperfect, but that doesn't preclude you from using it or the fact that it has utility"(Gitschier 2005).</ref> that these categories correspond to clusters [[Race and genetics#Genetic variation is structured by geographic origin|inferred from multilocus genetic data]],<ref>(Harpending and Rogers 2000), (Bamshad ''et al.'' 2003), (Edwards 2003), (Bamshad ''et al.'' 2004), (Tang ''et al.'' 2005), (Rosenberg ''et al.'' 2005): "If enough markers are used... individuals can be partitioned into genetic clusters that match major geographic subdivisions of the globe".</ref> and that this correspondence implies that genetic factors might contribute to unexplained phenotypic variation between groups.<ref>(Mountain and Risch 2004)</ref>
 
In February, 2001, the editors of the medical journal ''Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine'' asked authors to no longer use race as an explanatory variable and not to use obsolescent terms. Some other peer-reviewed journals, such as the ''New England Journal of Medicine'' and the ''American Journal of Public Health'', have made similar endeavours.<ref> Frederick P. Rivara and Laurence Finberg, "Use of the Terms Race and Ethnicity," ''Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine'' 155, no. 2 (2001): 119. For similar author's guidelines, see Robert S. Schwartz, "Racial Profiling in Medical Research," ''The New England Journal of Medicine'', 344 (no, 18, May 3, 2001); M.T. Fullilove, "Abandoning 'Race' as a Variable in Public Health Research: An Idea Whose Time has Come," ''American Journal of Public Health'', 88 (1998), 1297-1298; and R. Bhopal and L. Donaldson, "White, European, Western, Caucasian, or What? Inappropriate Labeling in Research on Race, Ethnicity, and Health." ''American Journal of Public Health'', 88 (1998), 1303-1307.</ref> Furthermore, the National Institutes of Health recently issued a program announcement for grant applications through February 1, 2006, specifically seeking researchers who can investigate and publicize among primary care physicians the detrimental effects on the nation's health of the practice of medical racial profiling using such terms. The program announcement quoted the editors of one journal as saying that, "analysis by race and ethnicity has become an analytical knee-jerk reflex."<ref> See program announcement and requests for grant applications at the NIH website, at [http://grants1.nih.gov/grants/guide/pa-files/PA-03-057.html nih.gov].</ref>
 
A [[Statistical survey|survey]], taken in 1985 (Lieberman ''et al.'' 1992), asked 1,200 American anthropologists how many '''disagree''' with the following proposition: "There are biological races in the species ''Homo sapiens''." The responses were:
*'''[[physical anthropologist]]s 41%'''
*'''[[cultural anthropologist]]s 53%'''<ref name="presentations2005"/>
The figure for physical anthropologists at [[PhD]] granting departments was slightly higher, rising from 41% to 42%, with 50% agreeing. This survey, however, did not specify any particular definition of race (although it did clearly specify ''biological race'' within the ''species'' ''Homo sapiens''); it is difficult to say whether those who supported the statement thought of race in taxonomic or population terms.
 
The same survey, taken in 1999,<ref>[http://www.ssc.uwo.ca/psychology/faculty/rushtonpdfs/Lieberman2001CA.pdf ssc.uwo.ca]</ref> showed the following changing results for anthropologists:
*'''[[physical anthropologist]]s 69%'''
*'''[[cultural anthropologist]]s 80%'''
 
In [[Poland]] the race concept was rejected by only 25 percent of anthropologists in 2001, although: "Unlike the U.S. anthropologists, Polish anthropologists tend to regard race as a term without taxonomic value, often as a substitute for population."<ref>"'Race'—Still an Issue for Physical Anthropology? Results of Polish Studies Seen in the Light of the U.S. Findings" by Katarzyna A. Kaszycka. American Anthropologist March 2003, Vol. 105, No. 1, pp. 116-124</ref>
 
In the face of these issues, some evolutionary scientists have simply abandoned the concept of race in favor of "population." What distinguishes population from previous groupings of humans by race is that it refers to a breeding population (essential to genetic calculations) and not to a biological [[taxon]]. Other evolutionary scientists have abandoned the concept of race in favor of [[cline (population genetics)|cline]] (meaning, how the frequency of a trait changes along a geographic gradient). (The concepts of population and cline are not, however, mutually exclusive and both are used by many evolutionary scientists.)
 
According to Jonathan Marks,
:By the 1970s, it had become clear that (1) most human differences were cultural; (2) what was not cultural was principally polymorphic - that is to say, found in diverse groups of people at different frequencies; (3) what was not cultural or polymorphic was principally clinal - that is to say, gradually variable over geography; and (4) what was left - the component of human diversity that was not cultural, polymorphic, or clinal - was very small.
 
:A consensus consequently developed among anthropologists and geneticists that race as the previous generation had known it - as largely discrete, geographically distinct, gene pools - did not exist.<ref> Marks, Jonathan (2007) "Grand Anthropological Themes" in ''American Ethnologist'' 34(2): 234, cf. Marks, Jonathan (1995) ''Human Biodiversity: Genes, Race, and History''. New York: Aldine de Gruyter</ref>
 
In the face of this rejection of race by evolutionary scientists, many social scientists have replaced the word race with the word "[[Ethnic group|ethnicity]]" to refer to self-identifying groups based on beliefs concerning shared culture, ancestry and history. Alongside empirical and conceptual problems with "race," following the [[Second World War]], evolutionary and social scientists were acutely aware of how beliefs about race had been used to justify discrimination, apartheid, slavery, and genocide. This questioning gained momentum in the 1960s during the U.S. [[civil rights movement]] and the emergence of numerous anti-colonial movements worldwide. They thus came to believe that race itself is a [[Social construction|social construct]], a concept that was believed to correspond to an objective reality but which was believed in because of its social functions.<ref name="Gordon64">Gordon 1964</ref>
 
===Races as social constructions===
{{Main|Social interpretations of race|Racialism}}
 
Even as the idea of race was becoming a powerful organizing principle in many societies, some observers criticized the concept. In Europe, the gradual transition in appearances from one group to adjacent groups suggested to Blumenbach that "one variety of mankind does so sensibly pass into the other, that you cannot mark out the limits between them" (Marks 1995, p.&nbsp;54). As anthropologists and other evolutionary scientists have shifted away from the language of race to the term ''population'' to talk about genetic differences, [[History|Historians]], [[cultural anthropology|anthropologists]] and [[social sciences|social scientists]] have re-conceptualized the term "race" as a cultural category or [[social construct]], in other words, as a particular way that some people have of talking about themselves and others. Dr. Craig Venter and scientist Francis Collins of the National Institute of Health jointly made the announcement of the mapping of the human genome in 2000. Upon examining the data from the genome mapping, he realized that although we are indeed further apart genetically from each other, (1-3% instead of the assumed 1%), the types of variations don't warrant calling each other different races. He says quote.."Race is a social concept. It's not a scientific one. There are no bright lines (that would stand out), if we could compare all the sequenced genomes of everyone on the planet." "When we try to apply science to try to sort out these social differences, it all falls apart."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://fora.tv/2008/07/30/New_Ideas_New_Fuels_Craig_Venter_at_the_Oxonian#chapter_17 |title=New Ideas, New Fuels: Craig Venter at the Oxonian |publisher=FORA.tv |date=2008-11-03 |accessdate=2009-04-18}}</ref> As Stephan Palmie has recently summarized, race "is not a thing but a social relation";<ref name="Palmie07">Palmie, Stephan (2007) "Genomics, Divination, 'Racecraft'" in ''American Ethnologist'' 34(2): 214</ref> or, in the words of Katya Gibel Mevorach, "a metonym," "a human invention whose criteria for differentiation are neither universal nor fixed but have always been used to manage difference."<ref name="Mevorach07">Mevorach, Katya Gibel (2007) "Race, Racism and Academic Complicity" in ''American Ethnologist'' 34(2): 239-240</ref> As such it cannot be a useful analytical concept; rather, the use of the term "race" itself must be analyzed. Moreover, they argue that biology will not explain why or how people use the idea of race: history and social relationships will.
 
==== In the United States ====
{{Main|Race in the United States}}
{{See also|Race and genetics#Admixture in the United States|l1=Admixture in the United States}}
 
The immigrants to the [[Americas]] came ultimately from every region of Europe, Africa, and Asia. Throughout America the immigrants [[miscegenation|mixed]] among themselves and with the [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|indigenous inhabitants of the continent]]. In the [[United States]], for example, most people who self-identify as [[African American]] have some [[European ethnic groups|European ancestors]] — in one analysis of genetic markers that have differing frequencies between continents, European ancestry ranged from an estimated 7% for a sample of [[Jamaicans]] to ∼23% for a sample of African Americans from [[New Orleans]] (Parra ''et al.'' 1998). Similarly, many people who identify as [[European American]] have some African or Native American ancestors, either through openly [[interracial marriage]]s or through the gradual inclusion of people with mixed ancestry into the majority population. In a survey of college students who self-identified as [[White people|white]] in a northeastern U.S. university, ∼30% were estimated to have less than 90% European ancestry.<ref name="Shriver03">Shriver ''et al.'' 2003</ref>
 
Since the early history of the United States, Native Americans, African Americans, and European Americans have been classified as belonging to different races. For nearly three centuries, the criteria for membership in these groups were similar, comprising a person’s appearance, his fraction of known non-White ancestry, and his social circle.<sup>[[#2|2]]</sup> But the criteria for membership in these races diverged in the late 19th century. During [[Reconstruction era of the United States|Reconstruction]], increasing numbers of Americans began to consider anyone with "[[one-drop theory|one drop]]" of known "Black blood" to be Black, regardless of appearance.<sup>[[#3|3]]</sup> By the early 20th century, this notion of invisible blackness was made statutory in many states and widely adopted nationwide.<sup>[[#4|4]]</sup> In contrast, [[Amerindians]] continue to be defined by a certain percentage of "Indian blood" (called ''[[Blood quantum laws|blood quantum]]''), due in large part to [[American slavery ethics]]. Finally, to be White one had to have perceived "pure" White ancestry.
 
Efforts to sort the increasingly mixed population of the United States into discrete categories generated many difficulties (Spickard 1992). Efforts to track mixing between groups led to a proliferation of categories, such as [[mulatto]] and [[octoroon]], and blood quantum distinctions that became increasingly untethered from self-reported ancestry. A person's racial identity can change over time, and self-ascribed race can differ from assigned race (Kressin ''et al.'' 2003).
 
The difference between how Native American and Black identities are defined today (blood quantum versus one-drop rule) has demanded explanation. According to anthropologists such as [[Gerald Sider]], the goal of such racial designations was to concentrate power, wealth, privilege and land in the hands of Whites in a society of [[White privilege (sociology)|White hegemony and privilege]] (Sider 1996; see also Fields 1990). The differences have little to do with biology and far more to do with the history of [[racism]] and specific forms of [[White supremacy]] (the social, geopolitical and economic agendas of dominant Whites vis-à-vis subordinate Blacks and Native Americans), especially the different roles Blacks and Amerindians occupied in White-dominated 19th century America. The theory suggests that the blood quantum definition of Native American identity enabled Whites to acquire Amerindian lands, while the one-drop rule of Black identity enabled Whites to preserve their agricultural labor force. The contrast presumably emerged because, as peoples transported far from their land and kinship ties on another continent, Black labor was relatively easy to control, thus reducing Blacks to valuable [[commodity|commodities]] as agricultural laborers. In contrast, Amerindian labor was more difficult to control; moreover, Amerindians occupied large territories that became valuable as agricultural lands, especially with the invention of new technologies such as railroads; thus, the blood quantum definition enhanced White acquisition of Amerindian lands in a doctrine of [[Manifest Destiny]] that subjected them to marginalization and multiple episodic localized campaigns of extermination.
 
The political economy of race had different consequences for the descendants of aboriginal Americans and African slaves. The 19th century blood quantum rule meant that it was relatively easier for a person of mixed Euro-Amerindian ancestry to be accepted as White. The offspring of only a few generations of intermarriage between Amerindians and Whites likely would not have been considered Amerindian at all (at least not in a legal sense).<!--Too much speculation--> Amerindians could have [[treaty rights]] to land, but because an individual with one Amerindian great-grandparent no longer was classified as Amerindian, they lost any legal claim to Amerindian land. According to the theory, this enabled Whites to acquire Amerindian lands. The irony is that the same individuals who could be denied legal standing because they were "too White" to claim property rights, might still be Amerindian enough to be considered "[[Half-breed|breeds]]", stigmatized for their Native American ancestry.
 
The one-drop rule, on the other hand, made it relatively difficult for anyone of known Black ancestry to be accepted as White during the 20th century. The child of a Black sharecropper and a White person was considered Black. And, significantly, in terms of the economics of sharecropping, such a person also would likely be a sharecropper as well, thus adding to the employer's labor force.
 
In short, this theory suggests that in a 20th century economy that benefited from sharecropping, it was useful to have as many Blacks as possible. Conversely, in a 19th century nation bent on westward expansion, it was advantageous to diminish the numbers of those who could claim title to Amerindian lands by simply defining them out of existence.
 
It must be mentioned, however, that although some scholars of the [[Jim Crow laws|Jim Crow period]] agree that the 20th century notion of invisible Blackness shifted the color line in the direction of paleness, thereby swelling the labor force in response to Southern Blacks' [[Great Migration (African American)|Great Migration]] northwards, others (Joel Williamson, C. Vann Woodward, George M. Fredrickson, Stetson Kennedy) see the one-drop rule as a simple consequence of the need to define Whiteness as being pure, thus justifying White-on-Black oppression. In any event, over the centuries when Whites wielded power over both Blacks and Amerindians and widely believed in their inherent superiority over people of color, it is no coincidence that the hardest racial group in which to prove membership was the White one.
 
In the United States, social and legal conventions developed over time that forced individuals of mixed ancestry into simplified racial categories (Gossett 1997). An example is the aforementioned one-drop rule implemented in some state laws that treated anyone with a single known African American ancestor as black (Davis 2001). The decennial censuses conducted since 1790 in the United States also created an incentive to establish racial categories and fit people into those categories (Nobles 2000). In other countries in the Americas where mixing among groups was overtly more extensive, social categories have tended to be more numerous and fluid, with people moving into or out of categories on the basis of a combination of socioeconomic status, social class, ancestry, and appearance (Mörner 1967).
 
The term "[[Hispanic]]" as an [[ethnonym]] emerged in the 20th century with the rise of migration of laborers from American [[Hispanophone|Spanish-speaking countries]] to the United States. Today, the word "Latino" is often used as a synonym for "Hispanic". The definitions of both terms are non-race specific, and include people who consider themselves to be of distinct races (Black, White, Amerindian, Asian, and mixed groups).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.whitehouse.gov/omb/fedreg/1997standards.html |title=Revisions to the Standards for the Classification of Federal Data on Race and Ethnicity |accessdate=2009-03-19 |publisher=[[Office of Management and Budget]] |date=1997-10-30}} Also: [http://www.census.gov/population/www/socdemo/compraceho.html U.S. Census Bureau Guidance on the Presentation and Comparison of Race and Hispanic Origin Data] and [http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/DTTable?_bm=y&-ds_name=ACS_2007_1YR_G00_&-CONTEXT=dt&-mt_name=ACS_2007_1YR_G2000_B03002&-redoLog=true&-geo_id=01000US&-format=&-_lang=en&-SubjectID=15233308 B03002. HISPANIC OR LATINO ORIGIN BY RACE; 2007 American Community Survey 1-Year Estimates]</ref> In contrast to "Latino" or "Hispanic", "[[Anglo]]" refers to non-Hispanic [[White American]]s or non-Hispanic [[European American]]s, most of whom speak the English language but are not necessarily of [[English people|English]] descent.
 
==== In Brazil ====
{{Main|Race in Brazil}}
{{Unreferenced section|date=May 2009}}
Compared to 19th century United States, 20th century [[Demographics of Brazil|Brazil]] was characterized by a perceived relative absence of sharply defined racial groups. According to anthropologist Marvin Harris (1989), this pattern reflects a different history and different [[social relations]]. Basically, race in Brazil was "biologized," but in a way that recognized the difference between ancestry (which determines [[genotype]]) and [[phenotypic]] differences. There, racial identity was not governed by rigid descent rule, such as the [[one-drop rule]], as it was in the United States. A Brazilian child was never automatically identified with the racial type of one or both parents, nor were there only a very limited number of categories to choose from. Over a dozen racial categories would be recognized in conformity with all the possible combinations of hair color, hair texture, eye color, and skin color. These types grade into each other like the colors of the spectrum, and no one category stands significantly isolated from the rest. That is, race referred preferentially to appearance, not heredity. The complexity of racial classifications in Brazil reflects the extent of [[miscegenation]] in [[Brazilian society]], a society that remains highly, but not strictly, [[social stratification|stratified]] along color lines. Henceforth, the Brazilian [[narrative]] of a perfect "post-racist" country, must be met with caution, as sociologist [[Gilberto Freyre]] demonstrated in 1933 in ''Casa Grande e Senzala''.
 
====Marketing of race: genetic lineages as social lineages====
New research in molecular genetics, and the marketing of genetic identities through the analysis of one's [[Y chromosome]], [[Mitochondrial DNA|mtDNA]] or [[Autosome|autosomal DNA]], has reignited the debate surrounding race. Most of the controversy surrounds the question of how to interpret these new data, and whether conclusions based on existing data are sound. Although the vast majority of researchers endorse the view that continental groups do not constitute different subspecies, and molecular geneticists generally reject the identification of mtDNA and Y chromosomal lineages or allele clusters with "races", some anthropologists have suggested that the marketing of genetic analysis to the general public in the form of "Personalized Genetic Histories" (PGH) is leading to a new social construction of race.
 
Typically, a consumer of a commercial PGH service sends in a sample of DNA which is analyzed by molecular biologists and is sent a report, of which the following is a sample
:"African DNA Ancestry Report"
{{quotation|The subject's likely [[Haplogroup L2 (mtDNA)|haplogroup L2]] is associated with the so-called Bantu expansion from West and Central sub-Saharan Africa east and south, dated 2,000-4,000 years ago ... Between the 15th and 19th centuries C.E, the Atlantic slave trade resulted in the forced movement of approximately 13 million people from Africa, mainly to the Americas. Only approximately 11 million survived the passage and many more died in the early years of captivity. Many of these slaves were traded to the West African Cape Verde ports of embarkation through Portuguese and Arab middlemen and came from as far south as Angola. Among the African tribal groups, all Bantu-speaking, in which L2 is common are: Hausa, Kanuri, Fulfe, Songhai, Malunjin (Angola), Yoruba, Senegalese, Serer and Wolof.}}
Although no single sentence in such a report is technically wrong, through the combination of these sentences, anthropologists and others have argued, the report is telling a story that connects a haplotype with a language and a group of tribes. This story is generally rejected by research scientists because an individual receives his or her Y chromosome or mtDNA from only one ancestor in every generation; consequently, with every generation one goes back in time, the percentage of one's ancestors it represents halves; if one goes back hundreds (let alone thousands) of years, it represents only a tiny fragment of one's ancestry. As Mark Shriver and Rick Kittles recently remarked,
{{quotation|For many customers of lineage-based tests, there is a lack of understanding that their maternal and paternal lineages do not necessarily represent their entire genetic make-up. For example, an individual might have more than 85% Western European 'genomic' ancestry but still have a West African mtDNA or NRY lineage.}}
Nevertheless, they acknowledge, such stories are increasingly appealing to the general public.<ref>Mark D. Shriver & Rick A. Kittles, "Genetic ancestry and the search for personalized genetic histories" in ''Nature Reviews Genetics'' 5, 611-618 </ref> Thus, in his book ''[[Blood of the Isles]]'' (published in the US and Canada as ''Saxons, Vikings and Celts: The Genetic Roots of Britain and Ireland''), however, [[Bryan Sykes]] discusses how people who have been mtDNA tested by his commercial laboratory and been found to belong to the same haplogroup have parties together because they see this as some sort of "bond", even though these people may not actually share very much ancestry.
 
Through these kinds of reports, new advances in molecular genetics are being used to create or confirm stories have about [[Identity (social science)|social identities]]. Although these identities are not racial in the biological sense, they are in the cultural sense in that they link biological and cultural identities. Nadia Abu el-Haj has argued that the significance of genetic lineages in popular conceptions of race owes to the perception that while genetic lineages, like older notions of race, suggests some idea of biological relatedness, unlike older notions of race they are not directly connected to claims about human behaviour or character. Abu el-Haj has thus argued that "postgenomics does seem to be giving race a new lease on life." Nevertheless, Abu el-Haj argues that to understand what it means to think of race in terms of genetic lineages or clusters, one must understand that
{{quotation|Race science was never just about classification. It presupposed a distinctive relationship between "nature" and "culture," understanding the differences in the former to ground and to generate the different kinds of persons ("natural kinds") and the distinctive stages of cultures and civilizations that inhabit the world.}}
Abu el-Haj argues that genomics and the mapping of lineages and clusters liberates "the new racial science from the older one by disentangling ancestry from culture and capacity." As an example, she refers to recent work by Hammer ''et al.'', which aimed to test the claim that present-day Jews are more closely related to one another than to neighbouring non-Jewish populations. Hammer ''et al.'' found that the degree of genetic similarity among Jews shifted depending on the locus investigated, and suggested that this was the result of natural selection acting on particular loci. They therefore focused on the non-recombining Y chromosome to "circumvent some of the complications associated with selection".<ref>Hammer, M.F., A.J. Redd, E.T. Wood, M. R. Bonner, H. Jarjanazi, T. karafet, S. Santachiara-Benerecetti, A. Oppenheimer, M.A. Jobling, T. Jenkins, H. Ostrer, and B. Bonne-Tamir (2000) "Jewish and Middle Eastern Non-Jewish Populations Share a Common pool of Y-Chromosome Biallelic Haplotypes" in ''Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences'' 97(12): 6769-6774</ref> As another example she points to work by Thomas ''et al.'', who sought to distinguish between the Y chromosomes of Jewish priests (in Judaism, membership in the priesthood is passed on through the father's line) and the Y chromosomes of non-Jews.<ref> Thomas, M. K. Skoprecski, K. Ben-Ami, H. Parfitt, T. Bradman, and D.B. Goldstein (1988) "Origins of Old Testament priests" in ''Nature'' 394(6689): 138-140.</ref> Abu el-Haj concluded that this new "race science" calls attention to the importance of "ancestry" (narrowly defined, as it does not include all ancestors) in some religions and in popular culture, and people's desire to use science to confirm their claims about ancestry; this "race science," she argues, is fundamentally different from older notions of race that were used to explain differences in human behaviour or social status:
{{quotation|As neutral markers, [[junk DNA]] cannot generate cultural, behavioural, or, for that matter, truly biological differences between groups ... mtDNA and Y-chromosome markers relied on in such work are not "traits" or "qualities" in the old racial sense. They do not render some populations more prone to violence, more likely to suffer psychiatric disorders, or for that matter, incapable of being fully integrated - because of their lower evolutionary development - into a European cultural world. Instead, they are "marks," signs of religious beliefs and practices ... it is via biological noncoding genetic evidence that one can demonstrate that history itself is shared, that historical traditions are (or might well be) true."<ref> Nadia Abu el-Haj (2007) Rethinking Genetic Genealogy" in ''American Ethnology'' 34(2): 224-225</ref>}}
 
On the other hand, there are tests that do not rely on molecular lineages, but rather on correlations between allele frequencies, often when allele frequencies correlate these are called clusters. Clustering analyses are less powerful than lineages because they cannot tell a historical story, they can only estimate the proportion of a person's ancestry from any given large geographical region. These sorts of tests use informative alleles called [[Ancestry-informative marker]] (AIM), which although shared across all human populations vary a great deal in frequency between groups of people living in geographically distant parts of the world. These tests use contemporary people sampled from certain parts of the world as references to determine the likely proportion of ancestry for any given individual. In a recent [[Public Service Broadcasting]] (PBS) programme on the subject of genetic ancestry testing the academic [[Henry Louis Gates]]: "wasn’t thrilled with the results (it turns out that 50 percent of his ancestors are likely European)".<ref name="Frank">{{cite web|url=http://paa2006.princeton.edu/download.aspx?submissionId=61713 |title=Back with a Vengeance: the Reemergence of a Biological Conceptualization of Race in Research on Race/Ethnic Disparities in Health Reanne Frank |date= |accessdate=2009-04-18}}</ref> Charles Rotimi, of Howard University's National Human Genome Center, is one of many who have highlighted the methodological flaws in such research &mdash; that "the nature or appearance of genetic clustering (grouping) of people is a function of how populations are sampled, of how criteria for boundaries between clusters are set, and of the level of resolution used" all bias the results &mdash; and concluded that people should be very cautious about relating genetic lineages or clusters to their own sense of identity.<ref>Charles Rotimi (2003) "Genetic Ancestry Tracing and the Abridan identity: A Double-Edged Sword?" in ''Developing World Bioethics'' 3(2): 153-154.</ref>
 
Thus, in analyses that assign individuals to groups it becomes less apparent that self-described racial groups are reliable indicators of ancestry. One cause of the reduced power of the assignment of individuals to groups is [[wiktionary:admixture|admixture]]. For example, self-described African Americans tend to have a mix of West African and European ancestry. Shriver ''et al.'' (2003)<ref name="Shriver03" /> found that on average African Americans have ~80% African ancestry. Also, in a survey of college students who self-identified as “white” in a northeastern U.S. university, ~30% of whites had less than 90% European ancestry.<ref>{{cite web|author=Race, Ethnicity, and Genetics Working Group* |url=http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=1275602 |title=The Use of Racial, Ethnic, and Ancestral Categories in Human Genetics Research |publisher=Pubmedcentral.nih.gov |date= |accessdate=2009-04-18}}</ref>
 
Stephan Palmie has responded to Abu el-Haj's claim that genetic lineages make possible a new, politically, economically, and socially benign notion of race and racial difference by suggesting that efforts to link genetic history and personal identity will inevitably "ground present social arrangements in a time-hallowed past," that is, use biology to explain cultural differences and social inequalities.<ref>Stephan Palmie (2007) "Genomic Moonlighting, Jewish Cyborgs, and Peircian Abduction" in ''American Ethnologist'' 34(2): 249.</ref>
 
== Political and practical uses ==
=== Racism ===
{{Main|Racism|Racial segregation}}
 
=== Race and intelligence ===
{{Main|Race and intelligence}}
 
Researchers have reported differences in the average [[IQ]] test scores of various ethnic groups. The interpretation, causes, accuracy and reliability of these differences are highly controversial. Some researchers, such as [[Arthur Jensen]], [[Richard Herrnstein]], and [[Richard Lynn]], have argued that such differences are at least partially genetic. Others, for example [[Thomas Sowell]], argue that the differences largely owe to social and economic inequalities. Still others such as [[Stephen Jay Gould]] and [[Richard Lewontin]] have argued that categories such as "race" and "intelligence" are cultural constructs that render any attempt to explain such differences (whether genetically or sociologically) meaningless.
 
The [[Flynn effect]] is the rise of average Intelligence Quotient (IQ) test scores over generations (over time), an effect seen in most parts of the world, although at varying rates. Scholars therefore believe that rapid increases in average IQ seen in many places are much too fast to be as a result of changes in brain physiology and more likely as a result of environmental changes. The fact that environment has a significant effect on IQ undermines the case for the use of IQ data as a source of genetic information.<ref name="race_myth">{{cite web|url=http://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0813533023/ |title=biological theories of race page165 |publisher=Amazon.com |date= |accessdate=2009-04-18}}</ref><ref name="race_myth2">{{cite web|url=http://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/B000F7113I/ |title=page183 |publisher=Amazon.com |date= |accessdate=2009-04-18}}</ref>
 
=== In biomedicine ===
{{Main|Race in biomedicine}}
 
There is an active debate among biomedical researchers about the meaning and importance of race in their research. The primary impetus for considering race in biomedical research is the possibility of improving the prevention and treatment of [[disease]]s by predicting hard-to-ascertain factors on the basis of more easily ascertained characteristics. Some have argued that without cheap and widespread genetic tests, racial identification is the best way to predict for certain diseases, such as [[Cystic fibrosis]], [[Lactose intolerance]], [[Tay-Sachs Disease]] and [[sickle cell anemia]], which are genetically linked and more prevalent in some populations than others. The most well-known examples of genetically-determined disorders that vary in incidence among populations would be [[sickle cell disease]], [[thalassaemia]], and [[Tay-Sachs disease]]. [[Image:Sickle cell distribution.jpg|thumb|right|180px|distribution of the sickle cell trait]]
[[Image:Malaria distribution.jpg|thumb|right|180px|distribution of [[Malaria]] ]]
 
There has been criticism of associating disorders with race. For example, in the United States sickle cell is typically associated with black people, but this trait is also found in people of Mediterranean, Middle Eastern or Indian ancestry.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/posters/chromosome/sca.shtml |title=sickle cell prevalence |publisher=Ornl.gov |date= |accessdate=2009-04-18}}</ref> The sickle cell trait offers some resistance to [[malaria]]. In regions where malaria is present sickle cell has been [[Balancing selection|positively selected]] and consequently the proportion of people with it is greater. Therefore, it has been argued that sickle cell should not be associated with a particular race, but with having ancestors who lived in a malaria-prone region. Africans living in areas where there is no malaria, such as the East African highlands, have a prevalence of sickle cell as low as parts of Northern Europe.
 
Another example of the use of race in medicine is the recent [[Food and Drug Administration|U.S. FDA]] approval of [[Isosorbide dinitrate/hydralazine|BiDil]], a medication for congestive heart failure targeted at black people in the United States.<ref>Taylor AL, Ziesche S, Yancy C, Carson P, D'Agostino R Jr, Ferdinand K, Taylor M, Adams K, Sabolinski M, Worcel M, Cohn JN. Combination of isosorbide dinitrate and hydralazine in blacks with heart failure. N Engl J Med 2004;351:2049-57. PMID 15533851.</ref> Several researchers have questioned the scientific basis for arguing the merits of a medication based on race, however. As Stephan Palmie has recently pointed out, black Americans were disproportionately affected by Hurricane Katrina, but for social and not climatological reasons; similarly, certain diseases may disproportionately affect different races, but not for biological reasons. Several researchers have suggested that BiDil was re-designated as a medicine for a race-specific illness because its manufacturer, Nitromed, needed to propose a new use for an existing medication to justify an extension of its patent and thus monopoly on the medication,<ref> Duster, Troy (2005) "Race and Reification in Science" in ''Science'' 307(5712): 1050-1051, Fausto-Sterling, Anne (2004) "Refashioning Race: DNA and the Politics of Health" in ''differences'' 15(3):1-37, Jones, Joseph and Alan Goodman (2005) "BiDil and the 'fact' of Genetic Blackness" in ''Anthropology News'' 46(7):26, Kahn, Joseph (2004) "How a Drug Becomes 'Ethnic:' Law, Commerce, and the Production of Racial Categories in Medicine" in ''Yale Journal of Health Policy, Law and Politics'' 4(1):1-46, Kahn, Joseph (2005) "Misreading Race and Genomics after BiDil" in ''Nature Genetics 37(7):655-656, Palmie, Stephan (2007) "Genomics, Divination and 'Racecraft'" in ''American Ethnologist'' 34(2): 205-222).</ref> not for pharmacological reasons.
 
[[Gene flow]] and intermixture also have an effect on predicting a relationship between race and "race linked disorders". Multiple sclerosis is typically associated with people of European descent and is of low risk to people of African descent. However, due to gene flow between the populations, African Americans have elevated levels of MS relative to Africans.<ref>[http://www.med.harvard.edu/publications/On_The_Brain/Volume05/Number4/MSf.html Multiple Sclerosis. ''The Immune System's Terrible Mistake.''] BY PETER RISKIND, M.D., PH.D.</ref> Notable African Americans affected by MS include [[Richard Pryor]] and [[Montel Williams]]. As populations continue to mix, the role of socially constructed races may diminish in identifying diseases.
 
=== In law enforcement ===
[[Image:RaceMugshots.jpg|thumb|210px|In the U.S., the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] [[anthropometry|identifies fugitives]] to categories they define as sex, physical features, occupation, nationality, and race. From left to right, the FBI assigns the above individuals to the following races: White, Black, Hispanic , Asian. Top row males, bottom row females.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fbi.gov/wanted/topten/fugitives/fugitives.htm |title=FBI - Most Wanted - The FBI's Ten Most Wanted Fugitives}}</ref>]]
 
In an attempt to provide general descriptions that may facilitate the job of [[law enforcement officer]]s seeking to apprehend suspects, the United States [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]] employs the term "race" to summarize the general appearance (skin color, hair texture, eye shape, and other such easily noticed characteristics) of individuals whom they are attempting to apprehend. From the perspective of [[Law enforcement agency|law enforcement]] officers, it is generally more important to arrive at a description that will readily suggest the general appearance of an individual than to make a scientifically valid categorization by DNA or other such means. Thus, in addition to assigning a wanted individual to a racial category, such a description will include: height, weight, eye color, scars and other distinguishing characteristics, etc. [[Scotland Yard]] use a classification based in the ethnic background of [[British society]]: W1 (White-British), W2 (White-Irish), W9 (Any other white background); M1 (White and black Caribbean), M2 (White and black African), M3 (White and Asian), M9 (Any other mixed background); A1 (Asian-Indian), A2 (Asian-Pakistani), A3 (Asian-Bangladeshi), A9 (Any other Asian background); B1 (Black Caribbean), B2 (Black African), B3 (Any other black background); O1 (Chinese), O9 (Any other). Some of the characteristics that constitute these groupings are biological and some are learned (cultural, linguistic, etc.) traits that are easy to notice.
 
In many countries, such as [[France]], the state is legally banned from maintaining data based on race, which often makes the police issue wanted notices to the public that include labels like "dark skin complexion", etc. One factor that encourages this kind of circuitous wordings is that there is controversy over the actual relationship between crimes, their assigned punishments, and the division of people into the so-called "races," leading officials to try to deemphasize the alleged race of suspects. In the United States, the practice of [[racial profiling]] has been ruled to be both [[unconstitutional]] and also to constitute a violation of [[civil rights]]. There is active debate regarding the cause of a marked correlation between the recorded crimes, punishments meted out, and the country's "racially divided" people. Many consider ''de facto'' [[racial profiling]] an example of [[institutional racism]] in law enforcement. The history of misuse of racial categories to impact adversely one or more groups and/or to offer protection and advantage to another has a clear impact on debate of the legitimate use of known phenotypical or genotypical characteristics tied to the presumed race of both victims and perpetrators by the government.
 
More recent work in racial taxonomy based on DNA cluster analysis (see [[Lewontin's Fallacy]]) has led law enforcement to narrow their search for individuals based on a range of phenotypical characteristics found consistent with DNA evidence.<ref> [http://transobj.workopolis.com/servlet/Content/fasttrack/20050625/DNA25?section=Biotech ''Molecular eyewitness: DNA gets a human face'' ''Controversial crime-scene test smacks of racial profiling, critics say'']{{Dead link|date=April 2009}} CAROLYN ABRAHAM June 25, 2005</ref>
 
While controversial, DNA analysis has been successful in helping police identify both victims and perpetrators by indicating what phenotypical characteristics to look for and what community the individual may have lived in. For example, in one case phenotypical characteristics suggested that the friends and family of an unidentified victim would be found among the Asian community, but the DNA evidence directed official attention to missing Native Americans, where her true identity was eventually confirmed.<ref>[http://www.usatoday.com/news/nation/2005-08-16-dna_x.htm DNA tests offer clues to suspect's race] By Richard Willing, USA TODAY</ref> In an attempt to avoid potentially misleading associations suggested by the word "race," this classification is called "biogeographical ancestry" (BGA),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://appft1.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?Sect1=PTO2&Sect2=HITOFF&p=1&u=%2Fnetahtml%2FPTO%2Fsearch-bool.html&r=1&f=G&l=50&co1=AND&d=PG01&s1=20040229231&OS=20040229231&RS=20040229231 |title=Compositions and methods for inferring ancestry |publisher=Appft1.uspto.gov |date= |accessdate=2009-04-18}}</ref> but the terms for the BGA categories are similar to those used as for race. The difference is that ancestry-informative DNA markers identify continent-of-ancestry admixture, not ethnic self-identity, and provide a wide range of phenotypical characteristics such that some people in a biogeographical category will not match the stereotypical image of an individual belonging to the corresponding race. To facilitate the work of officials trying to find individuals based on the evidence of their DNA traces, firms providing the genetic analyses also provide photographs showing a full range of phenotypical characteristics of people in each biogeographical group. Of special interest to officials trying to find individuals on the basis of DNA samples that indicate a diverse genetic background is what range of phenotypical characteristics people with that general mixture of genotypical characteristics may display.
 
Similarly, [[forensic anthropology|forensic anthropologists]] draw on highly heritable morphological features of human remains (e.g. cranial measurements) to aid in the identification of the body, including in terms of race. In a recent article anthropologist Norman Sauer asked, "if races don't exist, why are forensic anthropologists so good at identifying them?"<ref>Sauer, Norman J. (1992) "Forensic Anthropology and the Concept of Race: If Races Don't Exist, Why are Forensic Anthropologists So Good at Identifying them" in Social Science and Medicine 34(2): 107-111.</ref> Sauer observed that the use of 19th century racial categories is widespread among forensic anthropologists:
 
*"In many cases there is little doubt that an individual belonged to the Negro, Caucasian, or Mongoloid racial stock."<ref>El-Najjar M. Y. and McWilliams K. R. ''Forensic Anthropology: The Structure, Morphology and Variation of Human Bone and Dentition'', p. 72. Charles C. Thomas, Springfield, 1978.</ref>
*"Thus the forensic anthropologist uses the term race in the very broad sense to differentiate what are commonly known as white, black and yellow racial stocks."<ref>Skinner M. and Lazenby R. A. ''Found Human Remains: A Field Manual for the Recovery of the Recent Human Skeletons'', p. 47. Simon Fraser University, British Columbia, 1983.</ref>
*"In estimating race forensically, we prefer to determine if the skeleton is Negroid, or Non-Negroid. If findings favor Non-Negroid, then further study is necessary to rule out Mongoloid."<ref>Morse D., Duncan J. and Stoutamire J. (Editors) ''Handbook of Forensic Archaeology''. p. 89. Bill’s Book Store, Tallahassee, 1983. </ref>
 
According to Sauer, "The assessment of these categories is based upon copious amounts of research on the relationship between biological characteristics of the living and their skeletons." Nevertheless, he agrees with other anthropologists that race is not a valid biological taxonomic category, and that races are socially constructed. He argued there is nevertheless a strong relationship between the phenotypic features forensic anthropologists base their identifications on, and popular racial categories. Thus, he argued, forensic anthropologists apply a racial label to human remains because their analysis of physical morphology enables them to predict that when the person was alive, a particular racial label would have been applied to them.<ref>Sauer, Norman J. (1992) "Foren Anthropology and the Concept of Race: If Races Don't Exist, Why are Forensic Anthropologists So Good at Identifying them" in Social Science and Medicine 34(2): 107-111. </ref>
 
==See also==
{|
|-
||
*[[Black Nationalism]]
*[[Breed]]
*[[Clan]]
*[[Cultural difference]]
*[[List of ethnic groups]]
*[[Multiracial]]
*[[Pre-Adamite]]
||
*[[Race and health]]
*[[Race baiting]]
*[[Race (fantasy)]]
*[[Race (U.S. census)]]
*[[Racial discrimination]]
*[[Racial stereotypes]]
*[[Racial superiority]]
||
*[[The Race of the Future]]
*[[The Race Question]]
*[[White Nationalism]]
*[[Whiteness studies]]
*[[Nationalism]]
*[[Ethnic nationalism]]
|}
 
==Footnotes==
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}
 
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== Bibliography ==<!-- GenomeRes14 p1679 from [[Human genetic variation]] [[Race and genetics]] -->
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</div>
 
==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
===Official statements and standards===
*[http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0012/001282/128291eo.pdf "The Race Question"], [[UNESCO]], 1950
*[http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/meta/long_68184.htm US Census Bureau: Definition of Race]
* [http://www.physanth.org/positions/race.html American Association of Physical Anthropologists' Statement on Biological Aspects of Race]
*[http://www.doi.gov/diversity/doc/racedata.htm "Standards for Maintaining, Collecting, and Presenting Federal Data on Race and Ethnicity"], ''Federal Register'' 1997
*[http://www.aaanet.org/stmts/racepp.htm American Anthropological Association's Statement on Race] and [http://www.understandingRACE.org/ RACE: Are we so different?] a public education program developed by the American Anthropological Association.
 
=== Popular press ===
* [http://www.medicinemagazine.info/consumer/index.php/articles/5-human-evolution-biology-and-anthropology/7-the-myth-of-race The Myth of Race] On the lack of scientific basis for the concept of human races ([[Medicine Magazine]], 2007).
* [http://www.pbs.org/race Race - The power of an illusion] Online companion to [[California Newsreel]]'s documentary about race in society, science, and history
* Steven and Hilary Rose, [[The Guardian]], [http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2005/apr/09/race.science "Why we should give up on race"], [[9 April]] [[2005]]
* Times Online, [http://www.timesonline.co.uk/article/0,,8122-1331319,00.html "Gene tests prove that we are all the same under the skin"], [[27 October]] [[2004]].
* Michael J. Bamshad, Steve E. Olson [http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?chanID=sa006&colID=1&articleID=00055DC8-3BAA-1FA8-BBAA83414B7F0000 "Does Race Exist?"], ''Scientific American'', December 2003
* [http://www.nytimes.com/2002/12/20/health/20GENE.html "Gene Study Identifies 5 Main Human Populations, Linking Them to Geography"], Nicholas Wade, ''NYTimes'', December 2002. Covering
*[http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?chanID=sa006&articleID=00055DC8-3BAA-1FA8-BBAA83414B7F0000 Scientific American Magazine (December 2003 Issue) Does race exists ?].
* [http://www.upi.com/view.cfm?StoryID=15042002-084051-5356r DNA Study published by United Press International showing how 30% of White Americans have at least one Black ancestor]
* Yehudi O. Webster [http://multiracial.com/site/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=213&Itemid=39 Twenty-one Arguments for Abolishing Racial Classification], ''The Abolitionist Examiner'', June 2000
* [http://literature.sdsu.edu/nericcio/textmex.html The Tex(t)-Mex Galleryblog], An updated, online supplement to the University of Texas Press book (2007), [http://www.utexas.edu/utpress/books/nertex.html Tex(t)-Mex]
* [http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/Opinion/Editorial/Cut_out_the_racism/articleshow/2208634.cms Times of India] - Article about Asian racism
* [http://www.sussex.ac.uk/ir/documents/april_4_2007.pdf South China Morning Post] - Going beyond ‘sorry’
*[http://raceandgenomics.ssrc.org/ Is Race "Real"?] forum organized by the [[Social Science Research Council]], includes [http://raceandgenomics.ssrc.org/Leroi/ 2005 op-ed article by A.M. Leroi from the ''New York Times''] advocating biological conceptions of race and responses from scholars in various fields [http://www.edge.org/3rd_culture/leroi05/leroi05_index.html More from Leori with responses]
*[[Richard Dawkins]]: [http://www.prospect-magazine.co.uk/article_details.php?id=6467 Race and creation] (extract from [[The Ancestor's Tale]]: A Pilgrimage to the Dawn of Life) - On race, its usage and a theory of how it evolved. ([http://www.prospect-magazine.co.uk/ Prospect Magazine] October 2004)
 
=== Others ===
* James, Michael (2008) [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/race/ Race], in the [[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]].
* [http://www.newsreel.org/guides/race/10things.htm Ten Things Everyone Should Know About Race] by California Newsreel.
* [http://www.understandingRACE.org/ American Anthropological Association's educational website on race with links for primary school educators and researchers]
*[http://www.southwestern.edu/~greenmue/boas.htm Boas's remarks on race to a general audience]
* Catchpenny mysteries of ancient Egypt, [http://www.catchpenny.org/race.html "What race were the ancient Egyptians?"], Larry Orcutt.
* Judy Skatssoon, [http://www.abc.net.au/science/news/stories/s1153697.htm "New twist on out-of-Africa theory"], ''ABC Science Online'', Wednesday, [[14 July]] [[2004]].
* [http://www.bloodbook.com/world-abo.html Racial & Ethnic Distribution of ABO Blood Types] - bloodbook.com
*[http://www.jonentine.com/reviews/daily_mail_uk.htm Are White Athletes an Endangered Species? And Why is it Taboo to Talk About It?] Discussion of racial differences in athletics
*[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/first/gill.html "Does Race Exist? A proponent's perspective"] - Author argues that the evidence from forensic anthropology supports the idea of race.
*[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/first/brace.html "Does Race Exist? An antagonist's perspective"] - The author argues that clinal variation undermines the idea of race.
*[http://www.americanethnography.com/article_sql.php?id=36 American Ethnography - The concept of race] Ashley Montagu's 1962 article in American Anthropology
*[http://www.americanethnography.com/article_sql.php?id=37 American Ethnography - The genetical theory of race, and anthropological method] Ashley Montagu's 1942 American Anthropology article
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