"මියන්මාරය" හි සංශෝධන අතර වෙනස්කම්
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සුළු ප්රවර්ගය:බුරුමය නැමැති ප්රවර්ගය එක් කරන ලදී. (HotCat භාවිතයෙන්.) |
Imported english article [as Requested] |
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1 පේළිය:
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2010}}
{{pp-move|small=yes}}
{{Infobox Country
|native_name = {{my|ပြည်ထောင်စုမြန်မာနိုင်ငံတော်}}<br/><small>''{{IPA-my|pjìdà̀uɴzṵ mjəmà nàiɴŋàɴdɔ̀|IPA}}''</small>
|conventional_long_name = Union of Myanmar
|common_name = Burma
|image_flag = Flag of Myanmar.svg
|image_coat = Coat of arms of Burma 2008.svg
|image_map = Location Burma (Myanmar) ASEAN.svg
|map_caption = {{map caption|location_color=green|region=[[ASEAN]]|region_colour=dark grey|legend=Location Burma (Myanmar) ASEAN.svg}}
|capital = [[Naypyidaw]]
|national_motto =
|national_anthem = ''[[Kaba Ma Kyei]]''
|official_languages = [[Burmese language|Burmese]]
|languages_type = [[Official script]]s
|languages = [[Burmese script]]
|regional_languages = [[Jingpho language|Jingpho]], [[Kayah language|Kayah]], [[Karen language|Karen]], [[Chin languages|Chin]], [[Mon language|Mon]], [[Rakhine]], [[Shan language|Shan]]
|demonym = Burmese/Myanmar
|Military capital = [[Naypyidaw]] (<sup>2</sup>)
|Business capital = [[Yangon]]
|largest_city = [[Yangon]] (Rangoon)
|latd=19 |latm=45 |latNS=N |longd=96 |longm=6 |longEW=E
|government_type = [[Military Dictatorship]]
|leader_title1 = [[President of Burma|Chairman]] of the [[State Peace and Development Council]]
|leader_name1 = [[Than Shwe|Sr. Gen. Than Shwe]]
|leader_title2 = Vice Chairman of the State Peace and Development Council
|leader_name2 = [[Maung Aye|Vice-Sr. Gen. Maung Aye]]
|leader_title3 = [[Prime Minister of Myanmar|Prime Minister]]
|leader_name3 = [[Thein Sein|Gen. Thein Sein]]
|leader_title4 = Secretary-1 of the State Peace and Development Council
|leader_name4 = [[Thiha Thura Tin Aung Myint Oo]]
|sovereignty_type = Formation
|established_event1 = [[Pagan Kingdom|Bagan]]
|established_date1 = 1044
|established_event2 = [[Post-independence Burma, 1948–1962|Independence]]
|established_date2 = 4 January 1948 (from United Kingdom)
|established_event3 = [[Burmese constitutional referendum, 2008|Current constitution]]
|established_date3 = May 2008
|area_rank = 40th
|area_magnitude = 1 E11
|area_km2 = 676,578
|area_sq_mi = 261,227 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]-->
|percent_water = 3.06
|population_estimate = 50,020,000<ref name=unpop>{{cite paper | url=http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/wpp2008/wpp2008_text_tables.pdf | title=World Population Prospects, Table A.1| version=2008 revision | format=PDF | publisher=United Nations | author=Department of Economic and Social Affairs
Population Division | year=2009 | accessdate= 12 March 2009}}</ref>
|population_estimate_year = 2009
|population_estimate_rank = 24th
|population_census = 33,234,000 (<sup>3</sup>)
|population_census_year = 1983
|population_density_km2 = 73.9
|population_density_sq_mi = 191.5 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]-->
|population_density_rank = 119th
|GDP_PPP_year = 2009
|GDP_PPP = $71.818 billion<ref name=imf2>{{cite web|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2010/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2007&ey=2010&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=518&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a=&pr.x=48&pr.y=14 |title=Burma (Myanmar) |publisher=International Monetary Fund|accessdate=21 April 2010}}</ref>
|GDP_PPP_rank =
|GDP_PPP_per_capita = $1,197<ref name=imf2/>
|GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank =
|GDP_nominal = $27.553 billion<ref name=imf2/>
|GDP_nominal_year = 2009
|GDP_nominal_per_capita = $459<ref name=imf2/>
|HDI_year = 2007 <!-- Please use the year that the data refers and not the publication year-->
|HDI = {{increase}} 0.586<ref name="UN">{{cite web|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2009_EN_Complete.pdf|title=Human Development Report 2009. Human development index trends: Table G|format=PDF|publisher=The United Nations|accessdate=5 October 2009}}</ref>
|HDI_rank = 138th
|HDI_category =<span style="color:#fc0;">medium</span>
|FSI = 97.0 {{increase}} 0.5
|FSI_year = 2007
|FSI_rank = 14th
|FSI_category = <span style="colour:red;">Alert</span>
|currency = [[Myanmar kyat|kyat]] (K)
|currency_code = mmK
|Official exchange rate = 6 Kyat
|Exchange rate = 1350 Kyat
|time_zone = [[Myanmar Standard Time|MST]]
|utc_offset = +6:30
|drives_on = right<ref>Road infrastructure is still for driving on the left.</ref>
|cctld = [[.mm]]
|calling_code = [[Telephone numbers in Burma|95]]
|footnote1 = Some governments recognise [[Yangon|Rangoon]] as the national capital.<ref>[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/bm.html CIA - The World Factbook - Burma]</ref>
|footnote2 = Estimates for this country take into account the effects of excess mortality due to AIDS; this can result in lower life expectancy, higher infant mortality and death rates, lower population growth rates, and changes in the distribution of population by age and sex than would otherwise be expected.
}}
{{Contains Burmese text}}
'''Burma''', officially the '''Union of Myanmar''', is the largest country by geographical area in mainland [[Southeast Asia]].<ref>Asian Development Bank - Myanmar Fact Sheet, (http://www.adb.org/Documents/Fact_Sheets/MYA.pdf), accessed July 8, 2010.</ref> The country is bordered by [[People's Republic of China]] on the north-east, [[Laos]] on the east, [[Thailand]] on the south-east, [[Bangladesh]] on the west, [[India]] on the north-west and the [[Bay of Bengal]] to the south-west with the [[Andaman Sea]] defining its southern periphery. One-third of Burma's total perimeter, 1,930 kilometers (1,199 mi), forms an uninterrupted coastline.
The country's culture, heavily influenced by neighbors, is based on [[Theravada]] [[Buddhism]] intertwined with [[Buddhism in Burma|local elements]]. Burma's diverse population has played a major role in defining its politics, history and demographics in modern times, and the country continues to struggle to mend its [[Internal conflict in Burma|ethnic tensions]]. The [[military]] has dominated government since [[Ne Win|General Ne Win]] led a [[coup]] in 1962 that toppled the civilian government of [[U Nu]]. Burma remains under the tight control of the military-led [[State Peace and Development Council]].
==Name==
{{Main|Names of Burma}}
The name "Burma" is derived from the Burmese word "Bamar" ([[File:Bama.svg|ဗမာ|30px]]), which in turn is the colloquial form of Myanmar ([[File:Myanma.svg|မြန်မာ|30px]]) (or Mranma in old [[Burmese language|Burmese]]), both of which historically referred to the majority [[Bamar|Burman]]s (or the Bamar). Depending on the [[register (linguistics)|register]] used the pronunciation would be "Bama" ({{IPA-my|bəmà|pron}}), or "Myanmah" ({{IPA-my|mjəmà|pron}}). The name "Burma" has been in use in English since the time of [[British Burma|British colonial rule]].
In 1989, the military government [[Geographical renaming|officially changed]] the English translations of many colonial-era names, including the name of the country to "Myanmar". This prompted one scholar to coin the term "Myanmarification" to refer to the top-down programme of political and cultural reform in the context of which the renaming was done. The renaming remains a contested issue.<ref name="Houtman">{{cite book |url=http://homepages.tesco.net/~ghoutman |title=Mental culture in Burmese crisis politics |last=Houtman |first=Gustaaf |year=1999 |series=ILCAA Study of Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa Monograph Series No. 33|publisher= Institute for the Study of Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa |pages=43–47 |isbn=978-4872977486}}</ref>
While most of the name changes are closer to their actual Burmese pronunciations, many opposition groups and countries continue to oppose their use in English because they recognise neither the legitimacy of the ruling military government nor its authority to rename the country or towns in English.<ref name="steinberg">{{cite book |last=Steinberg |first=David L. |year=2002 |month=February |title=Burma: The State of Myanmar |publisher=[[Georgetown University|Georgetown University Press]] |id=ISBN}}</ref> Various non-Burman ethnic groups choose to not recognise the name because the term Myanmar has historically been used as a label for the majority ethnic group, the [[Bamar]], rather than for the country.<ref name="thantmyintu2001">{{cite book | first=Thant | last=Myint-U | year=2001 | title=The Making of Modern Burma | isbn=0-521-79914-7 | publisher=Cambridge Univ. Press | location=Cambridge}}</ref><ref name="msmith"/><ref>''The Burma Road from the Union of Burma to Myanmar'', Mya Maung, Asian Survey, Vol. 30, No. 6, June 1990, p 602</ref>
Various world entities have chosen to accept or reject the name change. The United Nations, of which Burma (under the name Myanmar) is a member, endorsed the name change five days after its announcement by the junta.<ref name="Scrivener">{{cite news
|url=http://www.thestar.com/article/264116 |title=The Burma question |last=Scrivener |first=Leslie |date=6 October 2007 |work=TheStar.com | location=Toronto}}</ref> However, governments of many countries including Australia, Canada, France,<ref name="www.diplomatie.gouv.fr">{{cite web
|url=http://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/fr/pays-zones-geo_833/birmanie_551/index.html|title= Birmanie|publisher=France Diplomatie}}</ref> the United Kingdom and the United States<ref>"Background Notes: Burma." Electronic Information and Publications Office. Dec 2008. Bureau of Public Affairs. Accessed 5 Jul 2009. http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/35910.htm</ref> still refer to the country as "Burma", with varying levels of recognition of the validity of the name change itself. Others, including the [[Association of Southeast Asian Nations]] and the governments of Germany, India, Japan,<ref name="BBC">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/7013943.stm
|title=Should it be Burma or Myanmar?|date=26 September 2007|work=Magazine|publisher=[[BBC News Online]]|accessdate=2 July 2008}}</ref> Russia<ref name="Singer">{{cite news|url=http://jordanispalestine.blogspot.com/2008/08/myanmar-and-israel-fighting-semantic.html|title=Myanmar and Israel – Fighting the Semantic Wars|last=Singer|first=David|date=2 October 2007|accessdate=24 November 2008}}</ref> and the People's Republic of China recognise "Myanmar" as the official name.
Media usage is also mixed. In spite of the usage by the US government, some American news outlets including ''The New York Times'', ''[[The Wall Street Journal]]'', The ''[[International Herald Tribune]]'' and CNN, and international news agencies the ''[[Associated Press]]'', ''[[Reuters]]'' and ''[[Agence France-Presse]]'' have adopted the name "Myanmar". The name "Burma" is still widely used by other news outlets, including [[Voice of America]], ''[[The Washington Post]]'', the BBC, [[ITN]] and most British newspapers<!--See the Reuters citation at the end of the sentence-->, ''[[The Times of India]]'' and ''Time''. Other sources often use combined terms such as "Burma, also known as Myanmar." Some media outlets that use "Myanmar" refer to "Burma" as the nation's "colonial name."<ref>Klotz, Irene, [http://thestar.com.my/news/story.asp?file=/2005/7/28/worldupdates/2005-07-28T051044Z_01_NOOTR_RTRJONC_0_-210859-1&sec=Worldupdates Bush renews trade sanctions on Myanmar], Malaysia Star, 28 July 2005</ref><ref>Shenon, Philip, [http://www.nytimes.com/1995/08/20/movies/film-a-tale-of-turmoil-arrives-on-top-of-the-news.html FILM; A Tale of Turmoil Arrives on Top of the News], New York Times, 20 Aug 1995</ref><ref>[http://blogs.reuters.com/reuters-editors/2007/10/23/myanmar-or-burma/ Myanmar or Burma?], Reuters editorial comment, 23 October 2007</ref>
Confusion among English speakers on how to pronounce "Myanmar" gives rise to pronunciations such as {{IPA-en|ˈmjɑːnmɑr|}}, {{IPA|/maɪənˈmɑr/}}, {{IPA|/ˈmiːənmɑr/}} and {{IPA|/miːˈænmɑr/}}. The BBC recommends {{IPA|/mjænˈmɑ/}} or {{IPA|/mjænˈmɑr/}}.<ref>{{cite news
|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/blogs/magazinemonitor/2007/09/how_to_say_myanmar.shtml
|title=How to Say: Myanmar
|date=26 September 2007
|publisher=BBC News Magazine Monitor
|accessdate = 1 October 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.onelook.com/?loc=bm3&w=myanmar
|title=Dictionary Search
|publisher=onelook.com
|accessdate = 1 October 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.speech.cs.cmu.edu/cgi-bin/cmudict?in=myanmar&stress=-s#lookup
|title=The CMU Pronouncing Dictionary
|publisher=Carnegie Mellon University
|accessdate = 1 October 2007}}</ref> The common pronunciation in Burmese is {{IPA-my|mjəmà|}}.
==Geography==
[[File:Satellite image of the Ayeyarwady delta.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Irrawaddy Delta]], which is approximately {{convert|50400|km2|sqmi|0|abbr=on}} in area, is largely used for rice cultivation.<ref name="myatthein">{{cite book | first=Myat | last=Thein | year=2005 | title=Economic Development of Myanmar | isbn=9-8123-0211-5 | publisher=Inst. of Southeast Asian Studies | location=Singapore}}</ref>]]
[[Image:Mt Popa.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Buddhist monastery on [[Taung Kalat]] southwest of [[Mount Popa]]]]
{{Main|Geography of Burma}}
Burma, which has a total area of {{convert|678500|km2}}, is the largest country in mainland [[Southeast Asia]], and the 40th-largest in the world.
It is bordered to the northwest by [[Chittagong Division]] of [[Bangladesh]] and [[Mizoram]], [[Manipur]], [[Nagaland]] and [[Arunachal Pradesh]] of India to the northwest. It shares its longest borders with [[Tibet]] to the north and [[Yunnan]] of China to the northeast for a total of {{convert|2185|km|mi}}. It is bounded by [[Laos]] and [[Thailand]] to the southeast. Burma has {{convert|1930|km|mi}} of contiguous coastline along the [[Bay of Bengal]] and [[Andaman Sea]] to the southwest and the south, which forms one quarter of its total perimeter.<ref name="CIA">{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/bm.html |title=Burma |accessdate = 13 January 2007 |work=The World Factbook | publisher=Central Intelligence Agency }}{{Dead link|date=July 2009}}</ref>
In the north, the [[Hengduan Shan]] mountains form the border with China. [[Hkakabo Razi]], located in [[Kachin State]], at an elevation of {{convert|5881|m|ft|0}}, is the highest point in Burma.<ref>{{cite book | editor = Dr. Patrick Hesp et al. | year=2000 | title=Geographica's World Reference | publisher =Random House Australia | pages =738, 741}}</ref> Three mountain ranges, namely the Rakhine Yoma, the Bago Yoma, and the [[Shan Plateau]] exist within Burma, all of which run north-to-south from the [[Himalayas]].<ref name="myathan">{{cite book | first=Mya | last=Than | year=2005 | title=Myanmar in ASEAN: Regional Co-operation Experience | isbn=9-8123-0210-7 | publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies | location=Singapore}}</ref> The mountain chains divide Burma's three river systems, which are the [[Ayeyarwady River|Ayeyarwady]], [[Salween River|Salween (Thanlwin)]], and the [[Sittaung River|Sittaung]] rivers.<ref name="myatthein"/> The Ayeyarwady River, Burma's longest river, nearly {{convert|2170|km|mi|0}} long, flows into the [[Gulf of Martaban]]. Fertile plains exist in the valleys between the mountain chains.<ref name="myathan"/> The majority of Burma's population lives in the Ayeyarwady valley, which is situated between the Rakhine Yoma and the Shan Plateau.
===Climate===
[[File:MonStateMudon.jpg|thumb|left|Limestone landscape of [[Mon State]]]]
{{Main|Climate of Burma}}
Much of the country lies between the [[Tropic of Cancer]] and the [[Equator]]. It lies in the [[monsoon]] region of Asia, with its coastal regions receiving over {{convert|5000|mm|in|1|abbr=on}} of rain annually. Annual [[Precipitation (meteorology)|rainfall]] in the [[river delta|delta]] region is approximately {{convert|2500|mm|in|1|abbr=on}}, while average annual rainfall in the Dry Zone, which is located in central Burma, is less than {{convert|1000|mm|in|1|abbr=on}}. Northern regions of the country are the coolest, with average temperatures of {{convert|21|C|F}}. Coastal and delta regions have mean temperatures of {{convert|32|C|F|1}}.<ref name="myatthein"/>
===Wildlife===
The country's slow economic growth has contributed to the preservation of much of its environment and [[ecosystem]]s. Forests, including dense tropical growth and valuable [[teak]] in lower Burma, cover over 49% of the country, including areas of [[acacia]], [[bamboo]], [[Hopea odorata|ironwood]] and [[michelia champaca]]. [[Coconut]] and [[Areca catechu|betel palm]] and [[rubber]] have been introduced. In the highlands of the north, [[oak]], [[pine]] and various [[rhododendron]]s cover much of the land.<ref name="BRMLIB">{{cite web |url=http://www.burmalibrary.org/reg.burma/archives/199909/msg00690.html |title=Myanmar's Forest Law and Rules |publisher=BurmaLibrary.org |accessdate=15 July 2006}}</ref> The lands along the coast support all varieties of [[tropical fruit]]s and once had large areas of [[Myanmar Coast mangroves|mangroves]] although much of this has disappeared. In the Dry Zone, vegetation is sparse and stunted.
Typical [[jungle]] animals, particularly [[tiger]]s and [[leopard]]s, occur sparsely in Burma. In upper Burma, there are [[rhinoceros]], wild [[Bubalus|buffalo]], [[wild boar]]s, [[deer]], [[antelope]], and [[elephant]]s, which are also tamed or bred in captivity for use as work animals, particularly in the [[timber|lumber industry]]. Smaller [[mammal]]s are also numerous, ranging from [[gibbon]]s and [[monkey]]s to [[flying fox]]es and [[tapir]]s. The abundance of birds is notable with over 800 species, including [[parrot]]s, [[peafowl]], [[pheasant]]s, [[crow]]s, [[heron]]s, and [[paddy field|paddy]]birds. Among [[reptile]] species there are [[crocodile]]s, [[gecko]]s, [[cobra]]s, [[Burmese python]]s, and [[turtle]]s. Hundreds of species of [[freshwater]] [[fish]] are wide-ranging, plentiful and are very important food sources.<ref name="MNET">{{cite web|url=http://www.myanmars.net/myanmar-culture/myanmar-flora-fauna.htm |title="Flora and Fauna" at |publisher=Myanmars.net |date= |accessdate=17 April 2010}}</ref>
==History==
{{Main|History of Burma}}
After the [[First Burmese War]], the [[Ava]] kingdom ceded the provinces of [[Manipur]], Tenassarim, and Arakan to the British.<ref name="thantmyintu"/> [[Yangon|Rangoon]] and southern Burma were incorporated into [[British India]] in 1853. All of Burma came directly or indirectly under [[British Raj|British India]] in 1886 after the [[Third Burmese War]] and the fall of Mandalay.<ref name="thantmyintu"/> Burma was administered as a province of [[British Raj|British India]] until 1937 when it became a separate, self-governing colony. The country became independent from the United Kingdom on 4 January 1948, as the ''"Union of Burma"''.
It became the ''"Socialist Republic of the Union of Burma"'' on 4 January 1974, before reverting to the ''"Union of Burma"'' on 23 September 1988. On 18 June 1989, the [[State Law and Order Restoration Council]] (SLORC) adopted the name ''"Union of Myanmar"'' for English transliteration. This controversial name change in English, while accepted in the UN and in many countries, is not recognised by opposition groups and by nations such as the United Kingdom and the United States.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/35910.htm|work=US Department of State|title= Profile: Union of Burma}}</ref>
===Early history===
{{Main|Early History of Burma}}
Archaeological evidence suggests that civilization in the region which now forms Burma is quite old. The oldest archaeological find was of [[cave painting]]s and a [[Holocene]] assemblage in a [[hunter-gatherer]] cave site in [[Padah Lin]] in Shan State.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.lib.washington.edu/asp/myanmar/pdfs/AR0001A.pdf |author= U Aung Thaw |publisher=Burma Research Society; Yangon University, Yangon, Myanmar |title=Mon history |accessdate=25 February 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=http://books.google.com/?id=gxM0k5lGupAC&pg=PT320&lpg=PT320&dq=Padah+lin |author= John N. Miksic |publisher= NUS Press; National University of Singapore, Singapore |title=Earthernware in Southeast Asia |accessdate=25 February 2009 |isbn=9789971692711 |year=2003}}</ref>
The [[Mon people]] are thought to be the earliest group to migrate into the lower [[Irrawaddy River|Ayeyarwady]] valley, and by the mid-10th century BC were dominant in southern Burma.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.albany.edu/~gb661/monhist1.html |author=George Aaron Broadwell |publisher=Dept. of Anthropology; University at Albany, Albany, New York |title=Mon history |accessdate=11 July 2006}}</ref>
The [[Tibeto-Burman]] speaking [[Pyu]] arrived later in the 1st century BC, and established several city states – of which [[Pyay|Sri Ksetra]] was the most powerful – in central Ayeyarwady valley. The Mon and Pyu kingdoms were an active overland [[trade route]] between India and China. The Pyu kingdoms entered a period of rapid decline in early 9th century AD when the powerful kingdom of [[Kingdom of Nanzhao|Nanzhao]] (in present-day [[Yunnan]]) invaded the Ayeyarwady valley several times.
===Bagan (1044–1287)===
{{main|Pagan Kingdom}}
Tibeto-Burman speaking [[Bamar|Burmans]], or the [[Bamar]], began migrating to the Ayeyarwady valley from present-day [[Yunnan]]'s Nanzhao kingdom starting in 7th century AD. Filling the power gap left by the Pyu, the Burmans established a small kingdom centred in [[Bagan]] in 849. But it was not until the reign of King [[Anawrahta]] (1044–1077) that Bagan's influence expanded throughout much of present-day Burma.
After Anawrahta's capture of the Mon capital of [[Thaton]] in 1057, the Burmans adopted Theravada Buddhism from the Mons. The [[Burmese script]] was created, based on the [[Mon language|Mon script]], during the reign of King [[Kyanzittha]] (1084–1112). Prosperous from trade, Bagan kings built many magnificent temples and [[pagoda]]s throughout the country – many of which can still be seen today.
Bagan's power slowly waned in 13th century. [[Kublai Khan]]'s [[Mongol]] forces [[Mongol invasion of Burma|invaded]] northern Burma starting in 1277, and sacked Bagan city itself in 1287. Bagan's over two century reign of Ayeyarwady valley and its periphery was over.
[[File:Baganmyo.jpg|thumb|Pagodas and temples continue to exist in present-day Bagan, the capital of the [[Bagan Kingdom]].]]
===Small kingdoms (1287–1531)===
The Mongols could not stay for long in the searing Ayeyarwady valley. But the [[Shan people|Tai-Shan people]] from Yunnan who came down with the [[Mongol]]s fanned out to the [[Irrawaddy River|Ayeyarwady]] valley, Shan states, [[Laos]], [[Thailand|Siam]] and [[Assam]], and became powerful players in [[Southeast Asia]].
The Bagan empire was irreparably broken up into several small kingdoms:
* The Burman kingdom of [[Ava|Ava or Innwa]] (1364–1555), the [[successor state]] to three smaller kingdoms founded by Burmanised [[Shan people|Shan]] kings, controlling [[Upper Burma]] (without the [[Shan state]]s)
* The Mon kingdom of Hanthawady [[Bago, Burma|Pegu or Bago]] (1287–1540), founded by a Mon-ised Shan King Wareru (1287–1306), controlling [[Lower Burma]] (without [[Taninthayi]]).
* The Rakhine kingdom of [[Mrauk U]] (1434–1784), in the west.
* Several [[Shan state]]s in the Shan hills in the east and the [[Kachin Hills|Kachin hills]] in the north while the north-western frontier of present [[Chin Hills|Chin hills]] still disconnected yet.
This period was characterised by constant warfare between Ava and Bago, and to a lesser extent, Ava and the Shans. Ava briefly controlled Rakhine (1379–1430) and came close to defeating Bago a few times, but could never quite reassemble the lost empire. Nevertheless, Burmese culture entered a golden age. Hanthawady Bago prospered. Bago's Queen Shin Saw Bu (1453–1472) raised the gilded [[Shwedagon|Shwedagon Pagoda]] to its present height.
By the late-15th century, constant warfare had left Ava greatly weakened. Its peripheral areas became either independent or autonomous. In 1486, King [[Minkyinyo]] (1486–1531) of [[Taungoo]] broke away from Ava and established a small independent kingdom. In 1527, ''Mohnyin'' (Shan: Mong Yang) [[Shan people|Shans]] finally captured Ava, upsetting the delicate power balance that had existed for nearly two centuries. The Shans would rule Upper Burma until 1555.
===Taungoo (1531–1752)===
{{main|Taungoo Dynasty}}
Reinforced by fleeing Burmans from Ava, the minor Burman [[Taungoo Dynasty|kingdom of Taungoo]] under its young, ambitious king [[Tabinshwehti]] (1531–1551) defeated the more powerful Mon kingdom at [[Bago, Burma|Bago]], reunifying all of [[Lower Burma]] by 1540. Tabinshwehti's successor King [[Bayinnaung]] (1551–1581) would go on to conquer [[Manipur]] (1556), [[Shan State|Shan states]] (1557), [[Chiang Mai]] (1557), [[Ayutthaya kingdom|Ayutthaya]] (1564, 1569) and [[Lan Xang]] (1574), bringing most of western South East Asia under his rule. Preparing to invade [[Rakhine]], a maritime power controlling the entire coastline west of Rakhine Yoma, up to [[Chittagong]] province in [[Bengal]].
Bayinnaung's massive empire unravelled soon after his death in 1581. Ayutthaya [[Thai people|Siamese]] had driven out the Burmese by 1593 and went on to take [[Tanintharyi]]. In 1599, [[Rakhine]] forces aided by the Portuguese mercenaries sacked the kingdom's capital [[Bago, Burma|Bago]]. Chief Portuguese mercenary ''Filipe de Brito e Nicote'' (Burmese: ''Nga Zinga'') promptly rebelled against his Rakhine masters and established Portuguese rule in [[Thanlyin]] (Syriam), then the most important seaport in Burma. The country was in chaos.
The Burmese under King [[Anaukpetlun]] (1605–1628) regrouped and defeated the Portuguese in 1611. Anaukpetlun reestablished a smaller reconstituted kingdom based in Ava covering Upper Burma, Lower Burma and Shan states (but without Rakhine or Taninthayi). After the reign of King Thalun (1629–1648), who rebuilt the war-torn country, the kingdom experienced a slow and steady decline for the next 100 years. The Mons successfully rebelled starting in 1740 with French help and [[Thailand|Siamese]] encouragement, broke away Lower Burma by 1747, and finally put an end to the House of Taungoo in 1752 when they took [[Ava]].
===Konbaung (1752–1885)===
{{main|Konbaung Dynasty}}
[[File:Shwedagon pagoda.jpg|thumb|A British 1825 lithograph of [[Shwedagon Pagoda]] reveals early British occupation in Burma during the [[First Anglo-Burmese War]].]]
King [[Alaungpaya]] (1752–1760), established the [[Konbaung Dynasty]] in [[Shwebo]] in 1752.<ref>{{cite book| url=http://dlxs.library.cornell.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=sea;cc=sea;view=toc;subview=short;idno=sea328| title=An Account of An Embassy to the Kingdom of Ava by Michael Symes,1795}}</ref> He founded [[Yangon]] in 1755. By his death in 1760, Alaungpaya had reunified the country. In 1767, King [[Hsinbyushin]] (1763–1777) sacked [[Ayutthaya kingdom|Ayutthya]]. The [[Qing Dynasty]] of China invaded four times from 1765 to 1769 without success. The Chinese invasions allowed the new Siamese kingdom based in Bangkok to repel the Burmese out of [[Thailand|Siam]] by the late 1770s.
King [[Bodawpaya]] (1782–1819) failed repeatedly to reconquer Siam in 1780s and 1790s. Bodawpaya did manage to capture the western kingdom of [[Rakhine]], which had been largely independent since the fall of Bagan, in 1784. Bodawpaya also formally annexed [[Manipur]], a rebellion-prone protectorate, in 1813.
King [[Bagyidaw]]'s (1819–1837) general [[Mahabandoola|Maha Bandula]] put down a rebellion in [[Manipur]] in 1819 and captured then independent kingdom of [[Assam]] in 1819 (again in 1821). The new conquests brought the Burmese adjacent to the British India. The British defeated the Burmese in the [[First Anglo-Burmese War]] (1824–1826). Burma had to cede [[Assam]], [[Manipur]], [[Rakhine]] (Arakan) and [[Tanintharyi]] (Tenessarim).
In 1852, the British attacked a much weakened Burma during a Burmese palace power struggle. After the [[Second Anglo-Burmese War]], which lasted 3 months, the British had captured the remaining coastal provinces: [[Ayeyarwady Division|Ayeyarwady]], [[Yangon]] and [[Bago Division|Bago]], naming the territories as [[Lower Burma]].
King [[Mindon Min|Mindon]] (1853–1878) founded [[Mandalay]] in 1859 and made it his capital. He skilfully navigated the growing threats posed by the competing interests of Britain and France. In the process, Mindon had to renounce [[Kayah State|Kayah]] (Karenni) states in 1875. His successor, King [[Thibaw Min|Thibaw]] (1878–1885), was largely ineffectual. In 1885, the British, alarmed by the French conquest of neighbouring [[Laos]], occupied [[Upper Burma]]. The [[Third Anglo-Burmese War]] (1885) lasted a mere one month insofar as capturing the capital [[Mandalay]] was concerned. The [[Burmese royal family]] was exiled to [[Ratnagiri]], India. British forces spent at least another four years pacifying the country – not only in the Burmese heartland but also in the Shan, [[Chin people|Chin]] and [[Kachin]] hill areas. By some accounts, minor insurrections did not end until 1896.
===Colonial era (1886–1948)===
{{main|British rule in Burma}}
[[File:British Burma 1937 flag.png|thumb|Colonial flag (1937–1948)]]
[[File:British forces arrival mandalay1885.jpg|thumb|The landing of British forces in Mandalay after the last of the [[Anglo-Burmese War]]s, which resulted in the abdication of the last Burmese monarch, King [[Thibaw Min]].]]
The British conquest of Burma began in 1824 in response to a Burmese attempt to invade India. By 1886, and after two further wars, Britain had incorporated the entire country into the [[British Raj]]. Burma was administered as a province of [[British India]] until 1937 when it became a separate, self-governing colony. To stimulate trade and facilitate changes, the British brought in [[Non-resident Indian and Person of Indian Origin|Indians]] and [[Overseas Chinese|Chinese]], who quickly displaced the Burmese in urban areas. To this day [[Rangoon]] and [[Mandalay]] have large [[ethnic groups of India|ethnic Indian]] populations. Railways and schools were built, as well as a large number of prisons, including the infamous [[Insein Prison]], then and now used for [[political prisoner]]s. Burmese resentment was strong and was vented in violent riots that paralysed Yangon on occasion all the way until the 1930s.<ref>{{cite book | first=Maurice | last=Collis | year=1945 | title=Trials in Burma}}</ref>
[[File:Fytche Square, Rangoon.jpg|thumb|A view of Fytche Square (now [[Mahabandula Garden]]) in downtown Rangoon, which was developed and expanded by the British to serve as [[British Burma|Burma Proper]]'s capital.]]
Much of the discontent was caused by a disrespect for [[Burmese culture]] and traditions, for example, what the British termed the Shoe Question: the colonisers' refusal to remove their shoes upon entering Buddhist temples or other holy places. In October 1919, [[Eindawya Pagoda]] in Mandalay was the scene of violence when tempers flared after scandalised Buddhist monks attempted to physically expel a group of shoe-wearing British visitors. The leader of the monks was later sentenced to life imprisonment for attempted murder. Such incidents inspired the Burmese resistance to use [[Buddhism]] as a rallying point for their cause. Buddhist monks became the vanguards of the independence movement, and many died while protesting. One monk-turned-martyr was [[U Wisara]], who died in prison after a 166-day hunger strike to protest a rule that forbade him from wearing his Buddhist robes while imprisoned.<ref>{{cite book | first=Heinz | last=Bechert | year=1984 | title=The World of Buddhism-Buddhist Monks and Nuns in Society and Culture | isbn=978-0871969828 | publisher=Facts on File | location=New York, N.Y.}}</ref>
Eric Blair ([[George Orwell]]), served in the [[Indian Police Service|Indian Imperial Police]] in Burma for five years; his experience yielded the novel ''[[Burmese Days]]'' (1934) and the essays "[[A Hanging]]" (1931) and "[[Shooting an Elephant]]" (1936). An earlier writer with the same convoluted career path was [[Saki]]. During the colonial period, intermarriage between European male settlers and Burmese women, as well as between Anglo-Indians (who arrived with the British) and Burmese caused the birth of the [[Anglo-Burmese]] community. This influential community was to dominate the country during colonial rule and through the mid-1960s.
On 1 April 1937, Burma became a separately administered territory, independent of the Indian administration. The vote for keeping Burma in India, or as a separate colony "khwe-yay-twe-yay" divided the populace, and laid the ground work for the insurgencies to come after independence. In the 1940s, the [[Thirty Comrades]], commanded by [[Aung San]], founded the [[Burma Independence Army]]. The Thirty Comrades received training in Japan.<ref name="aungsan">{{cite book | first=Gustaaf | last=Houtman | year=1999 | title=Mental Culture in Burmese Crisis Politics: Aung San Suu Kyi and the National League for Democracy | isbn=4-87297-748-3 | publisher=Tokyo University of Foreign Studies, Institute for the Study of Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa | location=Tokyo}}</ref>
[[Image:IND 004723.jpg|thumb|right|British troops firing a [[mortar (weapon)|mortar]] on the [[Mawchi]] road, July 1944.]]
During World War II, Burma became a major front-line in the [[South-East Asian Theatre of World War II|Southeast Asian Theatre]]. The British administration collapsed ahead of the advancing Japanese troops, jails and asylums were opened and Rangoon was deserted except for the many [[Anglo-Burmese people|Anglo-Burmese]] and Indians who remained at their posts. A stream of some 300,000 refugees fled across the jungles into India; known as 'The Trek', all but 30,000 of those 300,000 arrived in India. Initially the Japanese-led [[Burma Campaign]] succeeded and the British were expelled from most of Burma, but the British counter-attacked using primarily troops of the [[British Indian Army]]. By July 1945, the British had retaken the country.
Although many Burmese fought initially for the Japanese, some Burmese, mostly from the ethnic minorities, also served in the British Burma Army.<ref>{{cite book | first=Ian | last=Fellowes-Gordon | year=1971 | title=The Battle For Naw Seng's Kingdom: General Stilwel}}</ref> In 1943, the Chin Levies and [[Kachin Levies]] were formed in the border districts of Burma still under British administration. The Burma Rifles fought as part of the [[Chindit]]s under [[Orde Wingate|General Orde Wingate]] from 1943 to 1945. Later in the war, the Americans created [[OSS Detachment 101|American-Kachin Rangers]] who also fought against the Japanese. Many others fought with the British [[Special Operations Executive]]. The [[Burma Independence Army]] under the command of [[Aung San]] and the Arakan National Army fought with the Japanese from 1942–1944, but switched allegiance to the Allied side in 1945.
British soldiers waged a guerrilla war against [[Japanese Empire|Japanese]] forces in Burma. [[Chindits]] were formed into [[long range penetration]] groups trained to operate deep behind Japanese lines.<ref>"[http://www.independent.co.uk/news/chindits-remember-their-fallen-comrades-1597019.html Chindits remember their fallen comrades]". The Independent. August 20, 1995.</ref> A similar American unit, [[Merrill's Marauders]], followed the Chindits into the jungle in 1943.<ref>"[http://www.loc.gov/vets/stories/cbi-marauders.html China-Burma-India: Merrill's Marauders]". Veterans History Project, Library of Congress.</ref> Although roughly 150,000 Japanese were to be killed in Burma, only 1,700 were taken prisoner, of whom only 400 could be described as physically fit.<ref>"''[http://books.google.com/books?id=ktCv32ysz0AC&pg=PA48&dq&hl=en#v=onepage&q=&f=false Japanese prisoners of war]''". Philip Towle, Margaret Kosuge, Yōichi Kibata (2000). [[Continuum International Publishing Group]]. p.48. ISBN 1852851929</ref>
In 1947, Aung San became Deputy Chairman of the Executive Council of Burma, a transitional government. But in July 1947, political rivals assassinated [[Aung San]] and several cabinet members.<ref name="aungsan"/>
===Democratic republic (1948–1962)===
On 4 January 1948, the nation became an independent [[republic]], named the ''Union of Burma'', with [[Sao Shwe Thaik]] as its first President and [[U Nu]] as its first Prime Minister. Unlike most other former British colonies and overseas territories, it did not become a member of the [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]]. A [[bicameral]] [[parliament]] was formed, consisting of a [[Chamber of Deputies]] and a [[Chamber of Nationalities]],<ref name="1947con">{{cite web|url=http://english.dvb.no/e_docs/511947_con.htm |title=The Constitution of the Union of Burma |accessdate=7 July 2006 |year=1947 |publisher=DVB}}{{Dead link|date=July 2009}}</ref> and [[Multi-party system|multi-party]] elections were held in [[Burmese general election, 1951–1952|1951–1952]], [[Burmese general election, 1956|1956]] and [[Burmese general election, 1960|1960]].
The geographical area Burma encompasses today can be traced to the Panglong Agreement, which combined Burma Proper, which consisted of [[Lower Burma]] and [[Upper Burma]], and the [[Frontier Areas]], which had been administered separately by the British.<ref name="msmith">{{cite book|first=Martin| last=Smith|year=1991| title=Burma -Insurgency and the Politics of Ethnicity|publisher=Zed Books|location=London and New Jersey|pages=42–43}}</ref>
In 1961, [[U Thant]], then the Union of Burma's Permanent Representative to the United Nations and former Secretary to the Prime Minister, was elected [[Secretary-General of the United Nations]]; he was the first non-Westerner to head any international organisation and would serve as UN Secretary-General for ten years.<ref name="az">{{cite web|url=http://www.irrawaddy.org/article.php?art_id=7610|author=Aung Zaw|title=Can Another Asian Fill U Thant's Shoes?|work=[[The Irrawaddy]] September 2006|accessdate=12 September 2006}}</ref> Among the Burmese to work at the UN when he was Secretary-General was a young [[Aung San Suu Kyi]], who went on to become winner of the 1991 [[Nobel Peace Prize]].
===Rule by military junta (1962 – present)===
{{See also|Military of Burma}}
[[Democracy|Democratic]] rule ended in 1962 when [[General officer|General]] [[Ne Win]] led a military [[coup d'état]]. He ruled for nearly 26 years and pursued policies under the rubric of the [[Burmese Way to Socialism]]. Between 1962 and 1974, Burma was ruled by a revolutionary council headed by the general, and almost all aspects of society (business, media, production) were nationalized or brought under government control (including the [[Union of Burma Boy Scouts|Boy Scout]]s).<ref name="thantmyintu">{{cite book | first=Thant | last=Myint-U | year=2006 | title=The River of Lost Footsteps | isbn=0-374-16342-1 | publisher=Farra, Strauss and Giroux | location=New York}}</ref> In an effort to consolidate power, Ne Win and many other top generals resigned from the military and took civilian posts and, from 1974, instituted elections in a [[Single-party state|one-party system]].
Between 1974 and 1988, Burma was effectively ruled by Ne Win through the [[Burma Socialist Programme Party]] (BSPP),<ref name="christinafink">{{cite book | first=Christina | last=Fink | year=2001 | title=Living Silence:Burma under Military Rule | isbn=1-8564-9926-X | publisher=White Lotus | location=Bankok}}</ref> which from 1964 until 1988 was the sole political party. During this period, Burma became one of the world's most impoverished countries. The Burmese Way to Socialism<ref name="ruin">{{cite news|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2007/sep/28/burma.uk|title=The Burma road to ruin|publisher=The Guardian | location=London | first=Mark | last=Tallentire | date=28 September 2007 | accessdate=27 April 2010}}</ref> combined [[Soviet]]-style nationalisation and [[central planning]] with the governmental implementation of superstitious beliefs.{{Citation needed|date=July 2010}} Criticism was scathing, such as an article published in a February 1974 issue of ''[[Newsweek]]'' magazine describing the Burmese Way to Socialism as 'an amalgam of Buddhist and Marxist illogic'.<ref name="ms">{{cite book|author=Martin Smith|title=Burma – Insurgency and the Politics of Ethnicity|year=1991|publisher=Zed Books|location=London and New Jersey|pages=124,200,20,130}}</ref>
Almost from the beginning, there were sporadic protests against the military rule, many of which were organised by students, and these were almost always violently suppressed by the government. On 7 July 1962, the government broke up demonstrations at [[Yangon University|Rangoon University]], killing 15 students.<ref name="thantmyintu"/> In 1974, the military violently suppressed anti-government protests at the funeral of [[U Thant]]. Student protests in 1975, 1976 and 1977 were quickly suppressed by overwhelming force.<ref name="christinafink"/>
Ne Win's rise to power in 1962 and his relentless persecution of "resident aliens" (immigrant groups not recognised as citizens of the [[Union of Burma]]) led to an exodus of some 300,000 [[Burmese Indians]].<ref>{{cite book|author=Martin Smith|year=1991|title=Burma – Insurgency and the Politics of Ethnicity|publisher=Zed Books|location=London,New Jersey|pages=43–44,98,56–57,176}}</ref> They migrated to escape [[Racial Discrimination against Burmese Indians|racial discrimination]] and wholesale nationalisation of private enterprise a few years later in 1964.<ref>[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,875949,00.html Asians v. Asians]. TIME. 17 July 1964.</ref>
A new [[Constitution of Burma|constitution of the Socialist Republic of the Union of Burma]] was adopted in 1974.
Hundreds of thousands of [[Rohingya]] Muslims fled Burma and many refugees inundated neighbouring Bangladesh including 200,000 in 1978 as a result of the [[King Dragon operation in Arakan]].<ref>[http://ipsnews.net/news.asp?idnews=45850 Burma's Muslim Rohingyas – The New Boat People ]. Marwaan Macan-Markar. IPS.</ref>
[[Image:8888 Uprising.jpg|thumb|Protesters gathering in central Rangoon, 1988]]
In 1988, unrest over economic mismanagement and political oppression by the government led to widespread pro-democracy demonstrations throughout the country known as the [[8888 Uprising]]. Security forces killed thousands of demonstrators, and General [[Saw Maung]] staged a coup d'état and formed the [[State Law and Order Restoration Council]] (SLORC). In 1989, SLORC declared [[martial law]] after widespread protests. The military government finalised plans for People's Assembly elections on 31 May 1989.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ibiblio.org/obl/docs/pyithu_hluttaw_election_law.htm |title=PYITHU HLUTTAW ELECTION LAW |accessdate=11 July 2006 |date=31 May 1989 |work=State Law and Order Restoration Council |publisher=iBiblio.org}}</ref> SLORC changed the country's official English name from the "Socialist Republic of the Union of Burma" to the "Union of Myanmar" in 1989.
In May 1990, the government held free elections for the first time in almost 30 years. The [[National League for Democracy]] (NLD), the party of [[Aung San Suu Kyi]], [[Burmese general election, 1990|won 392 out of a total 489 seats]], but the election results were annulled by SLORC, which refused to step down.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ibiblio.org/obl/docs/Elections-02.htm |title=1990 MULTI-PARTY DEMOCRACY GENERAL ELECTIONS |author=Khin Kyaw Han |accessdate=11 July 2006 |date=1 February 2003 |work=National League for Democracy |publisher=iBiblio.org}}</ref> Led by [[Than Shwe]] since 1992, the military regime has made cease-fire agreements with most ethnic guerilla groups. In 1992, SLORC unveiled plans to create a [[New Burmese Constitution|new constitution]] through the National Convention, which began 9 January 1993. In 1997, the State Law and Order Restoration Council was renamed the [[State Peace and Development Council]] (SPDC).
On 23 June 1997, Burma was admitted into the [[Association of Southeast Asian Nations]] (ASEAN). The National Convention continues to convene and adjourn. Many major political parties, particularly the NLD, have been absent or excluded, and little progress has been made.{{Citation needed|date=June 2008}} On 27 March 2006, the military junta, which had moved the national capital from [[Yangon]] to a site near [[Pyinmana]] in November 2005, officially named the new capital [[Naypyidaw]], meaning "city of the kings".<ref name="newcapital">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4848408.stm |title=Burma's new capital stages parade |publisher=BBC News|date=27 March 2006 |accessdate=24 June 2006 }}</ref> The ''[[CIA World Factbook]]'', however, still considers the capital to be Rangoon.<ref name="Rangooncapital">{{cite web | author = Central Intelligence Agency | title = CIA – The World Factbook – Field Listing – Capital | date= 9 April 2009 | url = https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2057.html | accessdate = 21 April 2009 }}</ref>
In November 2006, the [[International Labour Organization]] (ILO) announced it will be seeking – at the [[International Criminal Court]]<ref>[http://birmanie.total.com/en/contexte/p_1_1.htm Human Rights in Myanmar].</ref> – "to prosecute members of the ruling Myanmar junta for crimes against humanity" over the continuous [[forced labour]] of its citizens by the military. According to the ILO, an estimated 800,000 people are subject to forced labour in Myanmar.<ref>[http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Southeast_Asia/GC29Ae02.html ILO cracks the whip at Yangon].</ref>
The [[2007 Burmese anti-government protests]] were a series of anti-government protests that started in Burma on 15 August 2007. The immediate cause of the protests was mainly the unannounced decision of the ruling [[military junta|junta]], the State Peace and Development Council, to remove [[fuel subsidies]] which caused the price of [[diesel fuel|diesel]] and [[gasoline|petrol]] to suddenly rise as much as double, and the price of [[compressed natural gas]] for buses to increase fivefold in less than a week.<ref name="Fuel">[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/6947251.stm Burma leaders double fuel prices].</ref> The protest demonstrations were at first dealt with quickly and harshly by the junta, with dozens of protesters arrested and detained. Starting 18 September, the protests were led by thousands of [[Bhikkhu|Buddhist monks]], and those protests were allowed to proceed until a renewed government crackdown on 26 September.<ref name="Monks">[http://english.aljazeera.net/NR/exeres/4081D23F-F1A4-46AF-BA50-D47FA2B7A4AE.htm UN envoy warns of Myanmar crisis].</ref> During the crack-down, there were rumours of disagreement within the Burmese armed forces, but none were confirmed. Some news reports referred to the protests as the Saffron Revolution.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/asia/article2521951.ece|title=Military junta threatens monks in Burma | location=London | work=The Times | date=24 September 2007 | accessdate=27 April 2010 | first1=Jenny | last1=Booth}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.novinite.com/view_news.php?id=85644|title=100,000 Protestors Flood Streets of Rangoon in "Saffron Revolution"}}</ref>
[[File:2007 Myanmar protests 7.jpg|thumb|Protesters in [[Yangon]] with a banner that reads ''non-violence: national movement'' in [[Burmese language|Burmese]], in the background is [[Shwedagon Pagoda]]]]
During the 2007 anti-government protests a significant role was played by [[Aung San Suu Kyi]], the leader of the opposition to the Burmese military government. Aung San Suu Kyi had been under strict house arrest since 1989. In September 2007, hundreds of monks paid respects to her at the gate of her home, which was the first time in four years that people were able to see her in public. She was then given a second public appearance on 29 September, when she was allowed to leave house arrest briefly and meet with a UN envoy trying to persuade the junta to ease its crackdown against a pro-democracy uprising, to which the Myanmar government reluctantly agreed.
On 7 February 2008, SPDC announced that a referendum for the Constitution would be held and Elections by 2010. The [[Burmese constitutional referendum, 2008]] was held on 10 May and promised a "discipline-flourishing democracy" for the country in the future.
World governments remain divided on how to deal with the military junta. Calls for further sanctions by Canada, the United Kingdom, the United States and France are opposed by neighbouring countries; in particular, China has stated its belief that "sanctions or pressure will not help to solve the issue".<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/7035946.stm |title=Burma party rejects junta's terms |publisher=BBC News|date=9 October 2007|accessdate=9 October 2007 }}</ref> There is some disagreement over whether sanctions are the most effective approach to dealing with the junta, such as from a Cato Institute study and from prominent Burmese such as [[Thant Myint-U]] (a former senior UN official and Cambridge historian), who have opined that sanctions may have caused more harm than good to the Burmese people.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cato.org/pubs/trade/tpa-001.html |title=U.S. Sanctions on Burma-A Failure on All Fronts |publisher=Cato Institute}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lrb.co.uk/v29/n03/than01_.html |title=What to Do About Burma |author=Thant Myint-U}}</ref>
In 1950, the [[Karen people|Karen]] became the largest of 20 minority groups participating in an insurgency against the government of Burma. The conflict continues as of 2009.<ref>[http://www.refugeesinternational.org/content/article/detail/1142/?PHPSESSID=3fc64258eda9d44c2 " Human Rights in Burma: Fifteen Years Post Military Coup "]{{Dead link|date=July 2009}}, Refugees International</ref> In 2004, the BBC, citing [[aid agencies]], estimates that up to 200,000 Karen have been driven from their homes during decades of war, with 120,000 more refugees from Burma, mostly Karen, living in [[refugee camp]]s on the Thai side of the border. Many accuse the military government of Burma of [[ethnic cleansing]].<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4987224.stm Burma Karen families 'on the run']. 16 May 2006. BBC News.</ref> As a result of the [[Internal conflict in Burma|ongoing war]] in minority group areas, more than two million people have fled Burma to [[Thailand]].<ref>[http://www.spiegel.de/international/world/0,1518,515116,00.html The Children of the Mae Sot Dump]. Spiegel Online. 11 May 2007.</ref>
On 3 May 2008, [[Cyclone Nargis]] devastated the country when winds of up to 215 km/h (135 mph)<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.cnn.com/2008/WORLD/asiapcf/05/07/myanmar.aidcyclone/#cnnSTCText | work=CNN}} {{Dead link|date=August 2010|bot=RjwilmsiBot}}</ref> touched land in the densely populated, rice-farming delta of the [[Irrawaddy Division]].<ref>[http://www.iht.com/articles/ap/2008/05/06/asia/AS-GEN-Myanmar-Cyclone.php Aid arrives in Myanmar as death toll passes 22,000, but worst-hit area still cut off – International Herald Tribune<!-- Bot generated title -->].</ref> It was the worst [[natural disaster]] in Burmese history. Reports estimated that more than 200,000 people were dead or missing, and damage totaled to 10 billion dollars (USD). The [[World Food Programme]] reported, "Some villages have been almost totally eradicated and vast rice-growing areas are wiped out."<ref>[http://ap.google.com/article/ALeqM5g8-DEMtAE9q4i4ySQ0eV_qZefmRQD90GBUQ81 The Associated Press: AP Top News at 4:25 p.m. EDT<!-- Bot generated title -->]{{Dead link|date=July 2009}}.</ref> The United Nations projects that as many as 1 million were left homeless; and the [[World Health Organization]] "has received reports of malaria outbreaks in the worst-affected area."<ref name="autogenerated2">[http://ap.google.com/article/ALeqM5greyFH3qkj9mc9oagSoulgjN4KHgD90HICSO3 The Associated Press: Official: UN plane lands in Myanmar with aid after cyclone<!-- Bot generated title -->]{{Dead link|date=July 2009}}.</ref> Yet in the critical days following this disaster, Burma's isolationist regime hindered recovery efforts by delaying the entry of United Nations planes delivering medicine, food, and other supplies. The government's action was described by the United Nations as "unprecedented."<ref>{{cite news|coauthors=Rachel Stevenson, Julian Borger, Ian MacKinnon |title=Burma snubs foreign aid workers |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2008/may/09/cyclonenargis.burma4 |work=The Guardian |date=9 May 2008 |accessdate=9 May 2008 | location=London}}</ref>
On 4 May 2009, an American, [[John Yettaw]], allegedly swam across the lake uninvited to the house of Aung San Suu Kyi and remained there for two nights, resulting in the arrest of Yettaw and Suu Kyi, who are being held in [[Insein]] prison near Yangon.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2009/WORLD/asiapcf/05/15/myanmar.swimmer/ |title=American who swam to Suu Kyi's home faces 3 charges |work=CNN |date=14 May 2009}} {{Dead link|date=August 2010|bot=RjwilmsiBot}}</ref> As a result, Suu Kyi is being charged with violating the terms of her house arrest, and faces a sentence of up to five years.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.smartbrief.com/news/un_wire/storyDetails.jsp?issueid=E9C04503-313D-486E-A6C0-43F8AE6BBFE5©id=8C9EBF00-335A-44C5-AA9C-B72E8E4AB8EF |title=UN calls on Myanmar to release Suu Kyi |date=15 May 2009}}</ref> Suu Kyi's house arrest was due to end on 27 May 2009.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2009/05/16/world/asia/16myanmar.html?_r=1&hpw |work=The New York Times |author=Seth Mydans |date=15 May 2009 | title=After Years of Isolation, a Dissident Still Torments Her Tormentors}}</ref> On 11 August 2009, Suu Kyi was sentenced to an additional 18 months of house arrest following conviction on charges of violating the terms of her previous incarceration.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.reuters.com/article/topNews/idUSTRE57A04C20090811 |title=Myanmar's Suu Kyi ordered back into house detention |author=Aung Hla Tun |work=Reuters |date=11 August 2009}}</ref> [[British Prime Minister]] [[Gordon Brown]] stated, "This is a purely political sentence designed to prevent her from taking part in the regime's planned elections next year."
On August 13, 2010, Junta announces the election date for 2010 is November 7.
In early August 2009, a conflict known as the [[August 2009 Kokang incident|Kokang incident]] broke out in [[Shan State]] in northern Burma. For several weeks, junta troops fought against ethnic minorities including the [[Kokang people|Han Chinese]],<ref>[http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/32596296/ns/world_news-asiapacific/ Fighting forces up to 30,000 to flee Myanmar]. Msnbc.com. 28 August 2009.</ref> [[Va people|Va]], and [[Jingpo|Kachin]].<ref name=BangkokPost>{{cite web | url=http://www.bangkokpost.com/news/asia/152806/more-fighting-feared-as-thousands-flee-burma | title=More fighting feared as thousands flee Burma | publisher=[[Bangkok Post]] | author=[[Agence France-Presse]] | date=27 August 2009 | accessdate=28 August 2009}}</ref><ref name=NYTrefugees>{{cite news | work=The New York Times | last=Fuller | first=Thomas | date=28 August 2009 | accessdate=28 August 2009 | url=http://www.nytimes.com/2009/08/29/world/asia/29myanmar.html?ref=world | title=Refugees Flee to China as Fighting Breaks Out in Myanmar}}</ref> From August 8–12, the first days of the conflict, as many as 10,000 Burmese civilians fled to [[Yunnan]] province in neighbouring China.<ref name=BangkokPost/><ref name=NYTrefugees/><ref name=BBCrefugees>{{cite news | work=BBC News | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/8223430.stm | title='Thousands Flee Burma Violence' | date=26 August 2009 | accessdate=28 August 2009}}</ref>
===List of historical capitals===
[[File:Bagan2.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Bagan]]]]
*[[Amarapura]]
*[[Ava]]
*[[Bagan]]
*[[Bago, Burma|Bago]]
*[[Mandalay]]
*[[Mrauk U]]
*[[Naypyidaw]]
*[[Yangon|Rangoon (Yangon)]]
*[[Sagaing]]
*[[Shwebo]]
*[[Thaton]]
==Government and politics==
{{Main|Politics of Burma}}
Burma is governed by a [[military junta]] with the head of state being [[General|Senior General]] [[Than Shwe]], who holds the posts of "Chairman of the [[State Peace and Development Council]]" and "Commander in Chief of the Defence Services" as well as the Minister of Defence. General [[Khin Nyunt]] was [[prime minister]] until 19 October 2004, when he was replaced by [[General]] [[Soe Win]], after the purge of [[Military Intelligence]] sections within the [[Tatmadaw|Myanmar armed forces]]. The Prime Minister is General [[Thein Sein]], who took over upon the death of General Soe Win on 2 October 2007. The majority of ministry and cabinet posts are held by military officers, with the exceptions being the Ministry of Health, the Ministry of Education, the Ministry of Labour, and the Ministry of National Planning and Economic Development, posts which are held by civilians.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.odci.gov/cia/publications/chiefs/chiefs29.html |title=Chiefs of State and Cabinet Members of Foreign Governments: Burma |accessdate=11 July 2006 |date=2 June 2006 |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency}}</ref><!--[[File:RECO0009.jpg|thumb|right|The First and the last meeting]]-->
Elected delegates in the 1990 People's Assembly election formed the [[National Coalition Government of the Union of Burma]] (NCGUB), a [[government-in-exile]] since December 1990, with the mission of restoring democracy.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ncgub.net/NCGUB/index%20of%20NCGUB.htm |title= The Birth Of The NCGUB |accessdate=19 July 2006 |publisher=National Coalition Government of the Union of Burma}}{{Dead link|date=July 2009}}</ref> Dr. [[Sein Win]], a first cousin of [[Aung San Suu Kyi]], has held the position of prime minister of the NCGUB since its inception. The NCGUB has been outlawed by the military government.
Major political parties in the country are the [[National League for Democracy]] and the [[Shan Nationalities League for Democracy]], although their activities are heavily regulated and suppressed by the military government. Many other parties, often representing ethnic minorities, exist.{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}} The military government allows little room for political organisations and has outlawed many political parties and underground student organisations. The military supported the [[National Unity Party (Burma)|National Unity Party]] in the 1990 elections and, more recently, an organisation named the [[Union Solidarity and Development Association]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nationalreview.com/comment/comment-mccain061103.asp |title= Crisis in Rangoon |accessdate=14 July 2006 |last=McCain |first=John | authorlink=John McCain |date=11 May 2003 |publisher=National Review Online}}</ref>
[[File:Myanmar-message.jpg|thumb|Government propaganda poster states: "[[Tatmadaw]] and the people, cooperate and crush all those harming the union."]]
In 1988, the army violently repressed protests against economic mismanagement and political oppression. On 8 August 1988, the military opened fire on demonstrators in what is known as [[8888 Uprising]] and imposed martial law. However, the 1988 protests paved way for the 1990 People's Assembly elections. The election results were subsequently annulled by [[Saw Maung|Senior General Saw Maung]]'s government. The [[National League for Democracy]], led by [[Aung San Suu Kyi]], won over 60% of the vote and over 80% of parliamentary seats in the 1990 election, the first held in 30 years. The military-backed [[National Unity Party (Burma)|National Unity Party]] won less than 2% of the seats.
Aung San Suu Kyi has earned international recognition as an activist for the return of democratic rule, winning the [[Nobel Peace Prize]] in 1991. The ruling regime has repeatedly placed her under [[house arrest]]. Despite a direct appeal by former UN Secretary General [[Kofi Annan]] to [[Than Shwe|Senior General Than Shwe]] and pressure by the Association of Southeast Asian Nations ([[ASEAN]]), the military junta extended Aung San Suu Kyi's house arrest another year on 27 May 2006 under the 1975 State Protection Act, which grants the government the right to detain any persons on the grounds of protecting peace and stability in the country.<ref>{{cite news|author=[[The Irrawaddy]] |url=http://www.irrawaddy.org/article.php?art_id=5797&z=154 |title=Suu Kyi's Detention Extended, Supporters likely to Protest |publisher=[[The Irrawaddy]]|date= 27 May 2006 |accessdate=27 May 2006 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|author=[[The Irrawaddy]] |url=http://www.irrawaddy.org/article.php?art_id=5798&z=154 |title=Opposition Condemns Extension of Suu Kyi's Detention |publisher=[[The Irrawaddy]]|date= 27 May 2006 |accessdate=27 May 2006 }}</ref>
The junta faces increasing pressure from the United States and the United Kingdom. Burma's situation was referred to the [[UN Security Council]] for the first time in December 2005 for an informal consultation. In September 2006, ten of the United Nations Security Council's 15 members voted to place Myanmar on the council's formal agenda.<ref>{{cite news|author=[[The Irrawaddy]] |url=http://www.irrawaddy.org/article.php?art_id=6176 |title=UN Security Council Puts Burma on Agenda |first=Kim|last=Gamel|work=[[The Irrawaddy]], 16 September 2006|accessdate=11 October 2006}}</ref> On [[Independence Day]], 4 January 2007, the government released 40 [[political prisoner]]s, under a general amnesty, in which 2,831 prisoners were released.<ref name="CNN2007">{{cite news |title= Myanmar frees political prisoners |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2007/WORLD/asiapcf/01/11/myanmar.release.ap/ |work=CNN |date=11 January 2007 |accessdate=13 January 2007 }} {{Dead link|date=August 2010|bot=RjwilmsiBot}}</ref> On 8 January 2007, UN Secretary-General [[Ban Ki-moon]] urged the national government to free all political prisoners, including Aung San Suu Kyi.<ref>{{cite news |title=Ban Ki-moon calls on Myanmar to release all political prisoners |url=http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=21182&Cr=myanmar&Cr1= |work=UN News Centre |publisher=United Nations |date=8 January 2007 |accessdate=13 January 2007 }}</ref> Three days later, on 11 January, five additional prisoners were released from prison.<ref name="CNN2007"/>
[[ASEAN]] has also stated its frustration with the Union of Myanmar's government. It has formed the ASEAN Inter-Parliamentary Myanmar Caucus to address the lack of democratisation in the country.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aseanmp.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=1&Itemid=10 |title=About Us |accessdate=9 July 2006 | publisher=ASEAN Inter-Parliamentary Myanmar Caucus}}{{Dead link|date=July 2009}}</ref> Dramatic change in the country's political situation remains unlikely, due to support from major regional powers such as India, Russia, and, in particular, China.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ibiblio.org/obl/docs2/Chinese_MM_Eco.pdf |title=The Political Economy of China-Myanmar Relations: Strategic and Economic Dimensions |accessdate=14 July 2006 |last=Poon |first=Khim Shee |date= |year=2002 | format=PDF |publisher=[[Ritsumeikan University]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nwc.navy.mil/press/review/2002/spring/art3-sp2.htm|title=Burma and Superpower Rivalries in the Asia-Pacific|accessdate=16 July 2006|last=Selth|first=Andrew|year=Spring 2002|publisher=Naval War College Review}}{{Dead link|date=July 2009}}</ref>
In the annual [[ASEAN Summit]] in January 2007, held in [[Cebu]], Philippines, member countries failed to find common ground on the issue of Burma's lack of political reform.<ref>{{cite news |first=Carlos H. |last=Conde |title=Southeast Asians Agree to Trade Zone |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2007/01/14/world/asia/14asean.html |work=New York Times |date=14 January 2007 |accessdate=13 January 2007 }}</ref> During the summit, ASEAN foreign ministers asked Burma to make greater progress on its roadmap toward democracy and national reconciliation.<ref name="reutersASEAN">{{cite news |first=Bill |last=Tarrant |title=ASEAN leaders weigh charter, wrangle over Myanmar |url=http://in.today.reuters.com/news/newsArticle.aspx?type=worldNews&storyID=2007-01-13T143522Z_01_NOOTR_RTRJONC_0_India-283431-2.xml |work= |publisher=Reuters |date=13 January 2007 |accessdate=13 January 2007 }}</ref> Some member countries contend that Burma's [[human rights]] issues are the country's own domestic affairs, while others contend that its poor human rights record is an international issue.<ref name="reutersASEAN"/>
Burma's army-drafted constitution was overwhelmingly approved (by 92.4% of the 22 million voters with alleged voter turnout of 99%) on 10 May in the first phase of a two-stage [[referendum]] amid [[Cyclone Nargis]]. It was the first national vote since the 1990 election. Multi-party elections in 2010 would end 5 decades of military rule, as the new charter gives the military an automatic 25% of seats in parliament. NLD spokesman [[Nyan Win]], inter alia, criticised the referendum: "This referendum was full of cheating and fraud across the country; In some villages, authorities and polling station officials ticked the ballots themselves and did not let the voters do anything."<ref>{{cite news|url=http://in.reuters.com/article/topNews/idINIndia-33587120080515 |title=Reuters, Cyclone-hit Myanmar says 92 percent back charter |publisher=In.reuters.com |date=15 May 2008 |accessdate=17 April 2010}}</ref> The constitution would bar [[Aung San Suu Kyi]], from public office. 5 million citizens will vote 24 May in [[Yangon]] and the [[Irrawaddy Delta|Irrawaddy]] delta, worst hit by [[Cyclone Nargis]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gmanews.tv/story/95378/Myanmar-OKs-charter-amid-cyclone-disaster |title=www.gmanews.tv, Myanmar OKs charter amid cyclone disaster |publisher=Gmanews.tv |date= |accessdate=17 April 2010}}</ref>
Burma has a high level of [[Political corruption|corruption]], and ranks 178th out of 180 countries worldwide according to [[Transparency International]], which publishes its own [[Corruption Perceptions Index]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.transparency.org/news_room/in_focus/2008/cpi2008/cpi_2008_table |title=cpi 2008 table /cpi2008/2008/in focus/news room |publisher=Transparency.org |date= |accessdate=17 April 2010}}</ref>
==Human rights==
{{Main|Human rights in Burma}}
{{See|Internal conflict in Burma|Health in Burma|HIV/AIDS in Burma}}
[[Human rights in Burma]] are a long-standing concern for the international community and human rights organisations. There is consensus that the military regime in Burma is one of the world's most repressive and abusive regimes.
Several human rights organisations, including [[Human Rights Watch]] and [[Amnesty International]], and the [[American Association for the Advancement of Science]] have reported on human rights abuses by the military government.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://hrw.org/english/docs/2004/09/01/burma9290.htm |title=Statement to the EU Development Committee |accessdate=11 July 2006 |author=Brad Adams |publisher=[[Human Rights Watch]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://sciencemode.com/2007/09/28/satellite-images-verify-myanmar-forced-relocations-mounting-military-presence/ |title=Satellite Images Verify Myanmar Forced Relocations, Mounting Military Presence |accessdate=1 October 2007 |publisher=[[ScienceMode]]}}</ref> They have claimed that there is no independent [[judiciary]] in Burma. The military government restricts [[Internet access]] through software-based censorship that limits the material citizens can access on-line.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.opennetinitiative.net/studies/burma/ |title=Internet Filtering in Burma in 2005: A Country Study |publisher=OpenNet Initiative}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.burmanet.org/news/2006/06/27/mizzima-news-burma-bans-google-and-gmail-mungpi/#more-4642|title=Burma bans Google and gmail | publisher=BurmaNet News|date=27 June 2006| accessdate=28 June 2006}}</ref> [[Forced labour]], [[human trafficking]], and [[child labour]] are common.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://web.amnesty.org/library/index/ENGASA160201998 |title=Myanmar: 10th anniversary of military repression |accessdate=14 July 2006 |date=7 August 1998 |publisher=[[Amnesty International]]}}</ref> The military is also notorious for rampant use of sexual violence as an instrument of control, including allegations of systematic rapes and taking of [[sexual slavery|sex slaves]] as porters for the military. A strong women's pro-democracy movement has formed in exile, largely along the Thai border and in Chiang Mai. There is a growing international movement to defend women's human rights issues.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.womenofburma.org/Statement&Release/state_of_terror_report.pdf |format=PDF |title=State of Terror report |accessdate=21 May 2007 |date=1 February 2007 |publisher=[[Women's League of Burma]]}}</ref>
The ''Freedom in the World 2004'' report by [[Freedom House]] notes that "The junta rules by decree, controls the judiciary, suppresses all basic rights, and commits human rights abuses with [[impunity]]. Military officers hold all cabinet positions, and active or retired officers hold all top posts in all ministries. [[Political corruption|Official corruption]] is reportedly rampant both at the higher and local levels."<ref>[http://www.freedomhouse.org/research/freeworld/2004/countryratings/burma.htm]{{Dead link|date=July 2009}}</ref>
Brad Adams, director of Human Rights Watch's Asia division, in a 2004 address described the human rights situation in the country as appalling: "Burma is the textbook example of a [[police state]]. Government informants and spies are omnipresent. Average Burmese people are afraid to speak to foreigners except in most superficial of manners for fear of being hauled in later for questioning or worse. There is no [[freedom of speech]], assembly or association."<ref>{{cite web|author=Brad Adams, Director, Human Rights Watch Asia Division |url=http://hrw.org/english/docs/2004/09/01/burma9290.htm |title=Statement to the EU Development Committee | Human Rights Watch |publisher=Hrw.org |date=30 August 2004 |accessdate=17 April 2010}}</ref>
Evidence has been gathered suggesting that the Burmese regime has marked certain ethnic minorities such as the [[Karen people|Karen]] for extermination or 'Burmisation'.<ref>[http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/burmamyanmar/1492726/Burma%27s-%27slow-genocide%27-is-revealed-through-the-eyes-of-its-child-victims.html Burma's 'slow genocide' is revealed through the eyes of its child victims] – Anton La Guardia, Telegraph, 24 June 2005</ref> This, however, has received little attention from the international community since it has been more subtle and indirect than the mass killings in places like [[Rwanda]].<ref>[http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/burmamyanmar/1512149/New-evidence-backs-claims-of-genocide-in-Burma.html New evidence backs claims of genocide in Burma] – Mike Thomson, Telegraph, 4 March 2006</ref>
In April 2007, the U.S. [[Government Accountability Office]] (GAO) identified financial and other restrictions that the military government places on international humanitarian assistance. The GAO report, entitled "Assistance Programs Constrained in Burma", outlined the specific efforts of the government to hinder the humanitarian work of international organisations, including restrictions on the free movement of international staff within the country. The report notes that the regime has tightened its control over assistance work since former Prime Minister [[Khin Nyunt]] was purged in October 2004. The military junta passed guidelines in February 2006, which formalised these restrictive policies. According to the report, the guidelines require that programs run by humanitarian groups "enhance and safeguard the national interest" and that international organisations coordinate with state agents and select their Burmese staff from government-prepared lists of individuals. United Nations officials have declared these restrictions unacceptable.
Burma's government spends the least percentage of its GDP on health care of any country in the world, and international donor organisations give less to Burma, per capita, than any other country except India.<ref name=autogenerated1>http://www.msf.org/source/countries/asia/myanmar/2008/PreventableFate/PreventableFatereport.pdf</ref> According to the report named "Preventable Fate", published by [[Doctors without Borders]], 25,000 Burmese AIDS patients died in 2007, deaths that could largely have been prevented by Anti Retroviral Therapy drugs and proper treatment.<ref name=autogenerated1 /> {{See|Health in Burma|HIV/AIDS in Burma}}
==Regions and states==
{{Main|Administrative divisions of Burma}}
[[File:Burma en.png|thumb|The 14 states and regions of Burma]]
The country is divided into seven states ({{my|ပြည်နယ်}}) and seven regions ({{my|တိုင်းဒေသကြီး}}), formerly called divisions.<ref name="2008constbur">{{my|ပြည်ထောင်စုသမ္မတမြန်မာနိုင်ငံတော် ဖွဲ့စည်းပုံအခြေခံဥပဒေ (၂၀၀၈ ခုနှစ်)|}} (in Burmese) [http://www.irrawaddy.org/election/component/filecabinet/?task=download&cid[0]=1|2008 Constitution PDF]</ref> The announcement on the renaming of division to regions was made on 20 August 2010.<ref>{{cite news |title=တိုင်းခုနစ်တိုင်းကို တိုင်းဒေသကြီးများအဖြစ် လည်းကောင်း၊ ကိုယ်ပိုင်အုပ်ချုပ်ခွင့်ရ တိုင်းနှင့် ကိုယ်ပိုင်အုပ်ချုပ်ခွင့်ရ ဒေသများ ရုံးစိုက်ရာ မြို့များကို လည်းကောင်း ပြည်ထောင်စုနယ်မြေတွင် ခရိုင်နှင့်မြို့နယ်များကို လည်းကောင်း သတ်မှတ်ကြေညာ |newspaper=[[Weekly Eleven|Weekly Eleven News]] |date=2010-08-20 |url=http://www.news-eleven.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=4375:2010-08-20-12-39-51&catid=42:2009-11-10-07-36-59&Itemid=112 |accessdate=2010-08-23 |language=Burmese}}</ref> Regions are predominantly [[Bamar]]. States, in essence, are divisions which are home to particular ethnic minorities. The administrative divisions are further subdivided into [[Districts of Burma|districts]], which are further subdivided into [[township]]s, [[ward (sub-national entity)|ward]]s, and villages.
Below are the number of districts, townships, cities/towns, wards, village Groups and villages in each divisions and states of Burma as of 31 December 2001:<ref>''List of Districts, Townships, Cities/Towns, Wards, Village Groups and Villages in Union of Myanmar'' published by Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of Union of Myanmar on 31 December 2001</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! No.
! [[Country subdivision|State/Region]]
! [[Districts]]
! [[Townships]]
! [[Cities]]/[[Town]]s
! [[Ward (country subdivision)|Wards]]
! [[Village groups]]
! [[Villages]]
|-
| 1
| [[Kachin State]]
| 3
| 18
| 20
| 116
| 606
| 2630
|-
| 2
| [[Kayah State]]
| 2
| 7
| 7
| 29
| 79
| 624
|-
| 3
| [[Kayin State]]
| 3
| 7
| 10
| 46
| 376
| 2092
|-
| 4
| [[Chin State]]
| 2
| 9
| 9
| 29
| 475
| 1355
|-
| 5
| [[Sagaing Region]]
| 8
| 37
| 37
| 171
| 1769
| 6095
|-
| 6
| [[Tanintharyi Region]]
| 3
| 10
| 10
| 63
| 265
| 1255
|-
| 7
| [[Bago Region]]
| 4
| 28
| 33
| 246
| 1424
| 6498
|-
| 8
| [[Magway Region]]
| 5
| 25
| 26
| 160
| 1543
| 4774
|-
| 9
| [[Mandalay Region]]
| 7
| 31
| 29
| 259
| 1611
| 5472
|-
| 10
| [[Mon State]]
| 2
| 10
| 11
| 69
| 381
| 1199
|-
| 11
| [[Rakhine State]]
| 4
| 17
| 17
| 120
| 1041
| 3871
|-
| 12
| [[Yangon Region]]
| 4
| 45
| 20
| 685
| 634
| 2119
|-
| 13
| [[Shan State]]
| 11
| 54
| 54
| 336
| 1626
| 15513
|-
| 14
| [[Ayeyarwady Region]]
|6
| 26
| 29
| 219
| 1912
| 11651
|-
|
| '''Total'''
| '''63'''
| '''324'''
| '''312'''
| '''2548'''
| '''13742'''
| '''65148'''
|}
==Foreign relations and military==
{{Main|Foreign relations of Burma|Military of Burma}}
The country's [[foreign policy|foreign relations]], particularly with Western nations, have been strained. The United States has placed a ban on new investments by U.S. firms, an import ban, and an arms embargo on the Union of Myanmar, as well as frozen military assets in the United States because of the military regime's ongoing human rights abuses, the ongoing detention of Nobel Peace Prize recipient [[Aung San Suu Kyi]], and refusal to honour the election results of the 1990 People's Assembly election.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.congress.gov/cgi-bin/bdquery/z?d108:SN01182:@@@L&summ2=m& | title=Burma Freedom and Democracy Act of 2003 | publisher=United States Library of Congress |accessdate=4 February 2007 |date=4 June 2003}}</ref> Similarly, the European Union has placed sanctions on Burma, including an arms embargo, cessation of [[trade preference]]s, and suspension of all aid with the exception of [[humanitarian aid]].<ref name="EU">{{cite web|url=http://ec.europa.eu/comm/external_relations/myanmar/intro/index.htm |title= The EU's relations with Burma / Myanmar |accessdate=13 July 2006 |publisher=European Union}}</ref> U.S. and European government sanctions against the military government, coupled with boycotts and other direct pressure on corporations by supporters of the democracy movement, have resulted in the withdrawal from the country of most U.S. and many European companies. However, several Western companies remain due to loopholes in the sanctions{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}}.
Despite Western isolation, Asian corporations have generally remained willing to continue investing in the country and to initiate new investments, particularly in [[natural resource]] extraction. The country has close relations with neighbouring India and China with several Indian and Chinese companies operating in the country. There remains active debate as to the extent to which the American-led sanctions have had adverse effects on the civilian population or on the military rulers.<ref>{{cite news|lastname=Hiatt |firstname=Fred |url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn?pagename=article&contentId=A21505-2003Jun22 |title=How Best to Rid the World of Monsters |publisher=Washington Post|date=23 June 2003 |accessdate=24 May 2006 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.ibiblio.org/obl/reg.burma/archives/199905/msg00184.html |title=Reuters Belgian group seeks Total boycott over Myanmar |work=Ibiblio |publisher=Reuters |date=10 May 1999 |accessdate=24 June 2006 }}</ref> Burma has also received extensive military aid from India and China in the past.<ref>{{cite news|author=View all comments that have been posted about this article. |url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/09/27/AR2007092702382_pf.html |title=Caution by Junta's Asian Neighbors Reflects Their Self-Interest – |publisher=Washingtonpost.com |date=27 September 2007 |accessdate=17 April 2010}}</ref> According to some estimates, Burma has received more than US$200 million in military aid from India.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.businessweek.com/globalbiz/content/oct2007/gb20071019_332887_page_2.htm |title=India's Role in Burma's Crisis |publisher=Businessweek.com |date=19 October 2007 |accessdate=17 April 2010}}</ref> Under India's [[Look East policy]], fields of cooperation between India and Burma include [[remote sensing]],<ref>{{cite news|url=http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_product=NewsLibrary&p_multi=BBAB&d_place=BBAB&p_theme=newslibrary2&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&p_topdoc=1&p_text_direct-0=11045BA04AFDFED0&p_field_direct-0=document_id&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_date:D&s_trackval=GooglePM |title=NewsLibrary.com – newspaper archive, clipping service – newspapers and other news sources |publisher=Nl.newsbank.com |date=9 March 2006 |accessdate=17 April 2010}}</ref> oil and gas exploration,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.csmonitor.com/2006/0426/p04s01-wosc.html |title=India looks to Burma to slake growing thirst for gas |publisher=csmonitor.com |date=26 April 2006 |accessdate=17 April 2010}}</ref> [[information technology]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2008-08/04/content_8953269.htm |title=Myanmar, India to build IT centres in Myanmar_English_Xinhua |publisher=News.xinhuanet.com |date=4 August 2008 |accessdate=17 April 2010}}</ref> [[hydro power]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://steelguru.com/news/index/2008/08/01/NTY5MDg%3D/India_to_develop_two_hydel_power_projects_in_Myanmar.html |title=SteelGuru – News |publisher=Steelguru.com |date=1 August 2008 |accessdate=17 April 2010}}</ref> and construction of ports and buildings.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/mobile/bbc_news/world/asia_pacific/716/71684/story7168492.shtml |title=BBC News |publisher=BBC News |date=2 January 2008 |accessdate=17 April 2010}}</ref> In 2008, India suspended military aid to Burma over the issue of human rights abuses by the ruling junta, although it has preserved extensive commercial ties which provide the regime with much needed revenue.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://hrw.org/english/docs/2008/01/14/india17739_txt.htm |title=India and Burma: time to choose (Human Rights Watch, 14-1-2008) |publisher=Hrw.org |date= |accessdate=17 April 2010}}</ref>
The country's armed forces are known as the [[Tatmadaw]], which numbers 488,000. The Tatmadaw comprises the [[Myanmar Army|Army]], the [[Burma Navy|Navy]], and the [[Burma Air Force|Air Force]]. The country [[List of countries by number of active troops|ranked twelfth]] in the world for its number of active troops in service.<ref name="CIA"/> The military is very influential in the country, with top cabinet and ministry posts held by [[military officer]]s. Official figures for military spending are not available. Estimates vary widely because of uncertain exchange rates, but military spending is very high.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.commondreams.org/headlines05/0607-03.htm |title= World Military Spending Topped [[US Dollar|US$]]1 [[1000000000000 (number)|trillion]] in 2004 |accessdate=19 July 2006 |last=Starck |first=Peter |date=7 June 2005 |work=Reuters |publisher=Common Dreams NewsCenter }}</ref> The country imports most of its weapons from Russia, [[Ukraine]], China and India.
The country is building a research [[nuclear reactor]] near May Myo (Pyin Oo Lwin) with help from Russia. It is one of the signatories of the nuclear [[non-proliferation]] pact since 1992 and a member of the [[International Atomic Energy Agency]] (IAEA) since 1957. The military junta had informed the IAEA in September 2000 of its intention to construct the reactor. The research reactor outbuilding frame was built by ELE steel industries limited of Yangon and water from Anisakhan/BE water fall will be used for the reactor cavity cooling system.
[[ASEAN]] will not defend the country in any international forum following the military regime's refusal to restore democracy. In April 2007, the Malaysian Foreign Ministry parliamentary secretary [[Ahmad Shabery Cheek]] said [[Malaysia]] and other ASEAN members had decided not to defend Burma if the country's issue was raised for discussion at any international conference. "Now Myanmar has to defend itself if it is bombarded in any international forum", he said when winding up a debate at committee stage for the Foreign Ministry. He was replying to queries from opposition leader [[Lim Kit Siang]] on the next course of action to be taken by Malaysia and ASEAN with the military junta. Lim had said Malaysia must play a proactive role in pursuing regional initiatives to bring about a change in Burma and support efforts to bring the situation in Burma to the [[UN Security Council]]'s attention.<ref>{{cite news|title=Asean Will Not Defend Myanmar at International Fora – Ahmad Shabery |publisher=Bernama|date=19 April 2007 |accessdate=23 April 2007 }}</ref> In November 2008, Burma's political situation with neighbouring Bangladesh became tense as they began searching for natural gas in a disputed block of the Bay of Bengal.<ref>{{cite news|author=Randeep Ramesh, South Asia correspondent |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2008/nov/05/bangladesh-burma-bengal-gas |title=Bangladesh sends warship to Burma in gas row | World news |publisher=The Guardian |date= 5 November 2008|accessdate=17 April 2010 | location=London}}</ref>
Until 2005, the [[United Nations General Assembly]] annually adopted a detailed resolution about the situation in Burma by consensus.<ref name = "UN-5483030">
{{ UN document |docid=A-54-PV.83 |body=General Assembly |type=Verbotim Report |session=54 |meeting=83 |page=30 |anchor=pg030-bk03 |date=17 December 1999 |meetingtime=10:00 |speakername=The President |accessdate=25 September 2007 }}
</ref><ref name = "UN-5483030"/><ref>
{{ UN document |docid=A-55-PV.81 |body=General Assembly |type=Verbotim Report |session=55 |meeting=81 |page=22 |anchor=pg022-bk01 |date=4 December 2000 |meetingtime=15:00 |speakername=The President |accessdate=25 September 2007 }}
</ref><ref>
{{ UN document |docid=A-56-PV.92 |body=General Assembly |type=Verbotim Report |session=56 |meeting=92 |page=7 |anchor=pg007-bk04 |date=24 December 2001 |meetingtime=11:00 |accessdate=25 September 2007 }}
</ref><ref>
{{ UN document |docid=A-60-PV.69 |body=General Assembly |type=Verbotim Report |session=60 |meeting=69 |page=19 |anchor=pg019-bk05 |date=23 December 2005 |meetingtime=10:00 |speakername=The President |accessdate=25 September 2007 }}</ref> But in 2006 a divided [[United Nations General Assembly]] voted through a resolution that strongly called upon the government of Burma to end its systematic violations of human rights.<ref>{{ UN document |docid=A-61-PV.84 |body=General Assembly |type=Verbotim Report |session=61 |meeting=84 |page=14 |anchor=pg014-bk07 |date=22 December 2006 |meetingtime=10:00 |accessdate=25 September 2007 }}</ref> In January 2007, Russia and China vetoed a draft resolution before the [[United Nations Security Council]]<ref name="UN_S200714">{{UN document |docid=S-2007-14 |type=Document |body=Security Council |year=2007 |document_number=14 |accessdate=25 September 2007| date=12 January 2007}}</ref> calling on the government of Myanmar to respect human rights and begin a democratic transition. South Africa also voted against the resolution.<ref>{{ UN document |docid=S-PV-5619 |body=Security Council |type=Verbotim Report |meeting=5619 |page=3 |anchor=pg003-bk01 |date=12 January 2007 |meetingtime=16:00 |speakername=Mr. Kumalo | speakernation=South Africa |accessdate=25 September 2007 }}</ref>
The country is a corner of the [[Golden Triangle (Southeast Asia)|Golden Triangle]] of [[opium]] production. In 1996 the [[United States Embassy]] in Rangoon released a "Country Commercial Guide", which states "Exports of opiates alone appear to be worth about as much as all legal exports." It goes on to say that investments in infrastructure and hotels are coming from major opiate-growing and opiate-exporting organisations and from those with close ties to these organisations.<ref name='BurmaNation'>{{cite news | first=Dennis | last=Bernstein | coauthors= Leslie Kean | title=People of the Opiate – Burma's dictatorship of drugs | date=16 January 1996 | publisher= | url =http://nick.assumption.edu/WebVAX/Nation/Bernstein16Dec96.html | work =[[The Nation]] | pages = | accessdate = 6 July 2008 | language = }}</ref> A four-year investigation concluded that Burma's national company [[Myanma Oil and Gas Enterprise]] (MOGE) was "the main channel for laundering the revenues of [[heroin]] produced and exported under the control of the [[Burmese army]]." The main player in the country's drug market is the [[United Wa State Army]], ethnic fighters who control areas along the country's eastern border with Thailand, part of the infamous Golden Triangle. The [[United Wa State Army|Wa army]], an ally of Burma's ruling military junta, was once the militant arm of the Beijing-backed [[Burmese Communist Party]]. Burma has been a significant cog in the transnational drug trade since World War II.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.worldnetdaily.com/news/article.asp?ARTICLE_ID=26063 |title=Afghan war lifts Burma's opium trade |work=[[WorldNetDaily]] |date=16 January 2002 |author=LoBaido, Anthony C |publisher=WorldNetDaily.com Inc}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gluckman.com/BurmaBorder.html |title=Where has all the opium gone? |author=Gluckman, Ron |publisher=Ron Gluckman}}</ref> The land area devoted to opium production increased 29% in 2007. A United Nations report cites corruption, poverty and a lack of government control as causes for the jump.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.voanews.com/english/archive/2007-10/2007-10-12-voa10.cfm?CFID=156804067&CFTOKEN=33443232 |title=Opium Cultivation Blossoms in Burma |first=Chad |last=Bouchard |work=[[Voice of America]] |date=12 October 2007}}</ref>
==Economy==
{{Main|Economy of Burma|List of Banks in Myanmar}}
{{See|Agriculture in Burma|Golden Triangle (Southeast Asia)|Tourism in Burma|Transport in Burma}}
[[File:Sakura Tower, Yangon, Myanmar.jpg|thumb|The Sakura Tower in Yangon is not fully occupied due to lack of major foreign investment.]]
The country is one of the poorest nations in Southeast Asia, suffering from decades of stagnation, mismanagement and isolation. Burma's GDP grows at an average rate of 2.9% annually – the lowest rate of economic growth in the Greater [[Mekong]] Subregion.<ref name="CIA"/>
Under British administration, Burma was the second-wealthiest country in South-East Asia. It had been the world's largest exporter of [[rice]]. During British administration, Burma supplied oil through the [[Burmah Oil Company Ltd.|Burmah Oil Company]]. Burma also had a wealth of natural and labour resources. It produced 75% of the world's [[teak]] and had a highly literate population.<ref name="steinberg"/> The country was believed to be on the fast track to development.<ref name="steinberg"/>
After a parliamentary government was formed in 1948, Prime Minister [[U Nu]] disastrously attempted to make Burma a [[welfare state]] and adopted central planning. Rice exports fell by two thirds and mineral exports by over 96%. Plans were partly financed by printing money, which led to inflation.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www2.sjsu.edu/faculty/watkins/burma.htm |title=Political and Economic History of Myanmar (Burma) Economics |accessdate=8 July 2006|last=Watkins |first=Thayer |publisher=San José State University}}</ref> The 1962 coup d'état was followed by an economic scheme called the [[Burmese Way to Socialism]], a plan to nationalise all industries, with the exception of agriculture. The catastrophic program turned Burma into one of the world's most impoverished countries.<ref name="ruin"/> Burma's admittance to [[Least Developed Countries|Least Developed Country]] status by the UN in 1987 highlighted its economic bankruptcy.<ref>{{cite web|year=2005 |url=http://www.un.org/special-rep/ohrlls/ldc/list.htm |title=List of Least Developed Countries |publisher=UN-OHRLLS }}</ref>
After 1988, the regime retreated from totalitarian rule. It permitted modest expansion of the private sector, allowed some foreign investment, and received needed foreign exchange.<ref>{{cite book | author=Stephen Codrington | year=2005 | title=Planet geography | publisher =Solid Star Press | page=559 | isbn=0-9579-8193-7}}</ref> The economy is still rated as [[List of countries by economic freedom|the least free in Asia]] (tied with [[North Korea]]).<ref name="freedom">{{cite web|url=http://www.heritage.org/index/country/Burma|title=Index of Economic Freedom: Burma|year=2009}}</ref> All fundamental market institutions are suppressed.<ref name="freedom"/><ref name="turnell"/> Private enterprises are often co-owned or indirectly owned by state. The corruption watchdog organisation [[Transparency International]] in its 2007 [[Corruption Perceptions Index]] released on 26 September 2007 ranked Burma the most corrupt country in the world, tied with [[Somalia]].<ref>2007 CPI http://www.transparency.org/policy_research/surveys_indices/cpi/2007</ref>
The national currency is [[Kyat]]. Burma has a dual exchange rate system similar to Cuba.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/eo20080502a1.html|title=The rape of Burma: where did the wealth go?|date=2 May 2008|author=Sean Turnell|publisher=The Japan Times}}</ref> The market rate was around two hundred times below the government-set rate in 2006.<ref name="turnell">{{cite web|url=http://uscampaignforburma.org/contact-resources/TurnellCongressTestimony.pdf|title=Burma's Economic Prospects – Testimony before the Senate Foreign Relations Subcommittee on East Asian and Pacific Affairs|author=Sean Turnell|date=29 March 2006}}</ref> Inflation averaged 30.1% between 2005 and 2007.<ref name="freedom"/> [[Inflation]] is a serious problem for the economy. In April 2007, the [[National League for Democracy]] organised a two-day workshop on the economy. The workshop concluded that skyrocketing inflation was impeding economic growth. "Basic commodity prices have increased from 30 to 60 percent since the military regime promoted a salary increase for government workers in April 2006", said Soe Win, the moderator of the workshop. "Inflation is also correlated with corruption." Myint Thein, an NLD spokesperson, added: "Inflation is the critical source of the current economic crisis."<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.irrawaddy.org/article.php?art_id=7064|title=High Inflation Impeding Burma's Economy, Says NLD |publisher=[[The Irrawaddy]]|date=30 April 2007|accessdate=30 April 2007}}</ref>
In recent years, both China and India have attempted to strengthen ties with the government for economic benefit. Many nations, including the United States and Canada, and the European Union, have imposed investment and trade sanctions on Burma. The United States has banned all imports from Burma.<ref name="turnell"/> Foreign investment comes primarily from People's Republic of China, [[Singapore]], South Korea, India, and [[Thailand]].<ref>{{cite news | first =David | last =Fullbrook | url =http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Southeast_Asia/FK04Ae03.html | title =So long US, hello China, India | publisher =Asia Times |date=4 November 2004 | accessdate =14 July 2006}}</ref>
[[File:Rijstvelden Myanmar 2006.jpg|thumb|Rice cultivation accounts for much of the agriculture in Burma today.]]
The major agricultural product is rice which covers about 60% of the country's total cultivated land area. Rice accounts for 97% of total food grain production by weight. Through collaboration with the International Rice Research Institute ([[IRRI]]), 52 modern [[rice]] varieties were released in the country between 1966 and 1997, helping increase national rice production to 14 million tons in 1987 and to 19 million tons in 1996. By 1988, modern varieties were planted on half of the country's ricelands, including 98 percent of the irrigated areas.<ref>{{PDFlink|[http://www.irri.org/media/facts/pdfs/myanmar.pdf Myanmar and IRRI]|21.2 KB}}, Facts About Cooperation, International Rice Research Institute. Retrieved on 25 September 2007.</ref>
The lack of an educated workforce skilled in modern technology contributes to the growing problems of the economy.<ref>{{cite book | first=Ian | last=Brown | year=2005 | title=A Colonial Economy In Crisis | publisher =Routledge | isbn=0-4153-0580-2}}</ref>
Today, the country lacks adequate infrastructure. Goods travel primarily across the [[Thailand|Thai]] border, where most illegal drugs are exported and along the [[Ayeyarwady River]]. Railways are old and rudimentary, with few repairs since their construction in the late 19th century.<ref name="idea">{{cite web|url=http://www.idea.int/asia_pacific/burma/upload/chap3.pdf |title=Challenges to Democratization in Burma |accessdate=12 July 2006 |year=2001 |month=November |format=PDF |publisher=International IDEA}}</ref> Highways are normally unpaved, except in the major cities.<ref name="idea"/> Energy shortages are common throughout the country including in [[Yangon]]. Burma is also the world's second largest producer of [[opium]], accounting for 8% of entire world production and is a major source of [[illegal drug]]s, including [[amphetamines]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unodc.org/pdf/myanmar/myanmar_country_profile_2005.pdf |title=Myanmar Country Profile |accessdate=9 July 2006 |year=2005 |month=December |format=PDF |work=Office on Drugs and Crime | pages=5–6 | publisher=United Nations}}</ref> Other industries include agricultural goods, textiles, wood products, construction materials, gems, metals, oil and natural gas.
The Union of Myanmar's rulers depend on sales of precious stones such as [[sapphires]], [[pearls]] and [[jade]] to fund their regime. [[Rubies]] are the biggest earner; 90% of the world's [[rubies]] come from the country, whose red stones are prized for their purity and [[hue]]. [[Thailand]] buys the majority of the country's [[Gemstone|gems]]. Burma's "''Valley of Rubies''", the mountainous [[Mogok Township|Mogok]] area, {{convert|200|km|mi|abbr=on}} north of [[Mandalay]], is noted for its rare pigeon's blood rubies and blue [[sapphires]].<ref>[http://www.uvm.edu/envnr/gemecology/index.html Gems of Burma and their Environmental Impact].</ref> Many U.S. and European jewellery companies, including Bulgari, Tiffany, and Cartier, refuse to import these stones based on reports of deplorable working conditions in the mines. Human Rights Watch has encouraged a complete ban on the purchase of Burmese gems based on these reports and because nearly all profits go to the ruling junta, as the majority of mining activity in the country is government-run.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.hrw.org/en/news/2007/11/11/burma-gem-trade-bolsters-military-regime-fuels-atrocities |title=Burma: Gem Trade Bolsters Military Regime, Fuels Atrocities |publisher=Human Rights Watch |date=11 November 2007}}</ref>
[[File:Naypyitaw Apartment.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Apartment building in Naypyidaw. Naypyidaw is the new capital of Burma which is nearing completion.]]
Since 1992, the government has encouraged [[Tourism in Burma|tourism in the country]]. However, fewer than 750,000 tourists enter the country annually.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.channelviewpublications.net/cit/006/0097/cit0060097.pdf |format=PDF |title=The Politics of Tourism in Myanmar |accessdate=8 July 2006|last=Henderson |first=Joan C. |publisher=[[Nanyang Technological University]]}}</ref> [[Aung San Suu Kyi]] has requested that international tourists not visit Burma. The junta's forced labour programmes were focused around tourist destinations which have been heavily criticised for their human rights records. Burma's Minister of Hotels and Tourism [[Maj-Gen Saw Lwin]] has stated that the government receives a significant percentage of the income of private sector tourism services.<ref>{{cite web|author=tayza thuria |url=http://www.tayzathuria.org.uk/bd/2006/12/24/re.htm |title=Burma Digest |publisher=Tayzathuria.org.uk |date=24 December 2006 |accessdate=17 April 2010}}</ref> Much of the country is completely off-limits to tourists, and the military very tightly controls interactions between foreigners and the people of Burma, particularly the border regions.<ref>{{cite web | title=Cycling Burma (Myanmar) | url=http://7ride.com/rides/myanmar-%28burma%29-2006.aspx | work=Cycling Burma (Myanmar) | date=1900-1-0 | accessdate=2010-05-21}}</ref> They are not to discuss politics with foreigners, under penalty of imprisonment, and in 2001, the Myanmar Tourism Promotion Board issued an order for local officials to protect tourists and limit "unnecessary contact" between foreigners and ordinary Burmese people.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.burmacampaign.org.uk/action_holiday.html |title=The Tourism Campaign – Campaigns – The Burma Campaign UK |publisher=Burmacampaign.org.uk |date= |accessdate=17 April 2010}}</ref>
The M9 gas field in Burma is expected to go online in 2012.<ref name="atimes.com">{{cite web|author=Jul 10, 2008 |url=http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Southeast_Asia/JG10Ae01.html |title=Asia Times Online :: Southeast Asia news and business from Indonesia, Philippines, Thailand, Malaysia and Vietnam |publisher=Atimes.com |date=10 July 2008 |accessdate=17 April 2010}}</ref>
==Units of measure==
{{Main|Burmese units of measurement}}
Burma is one of three countries that still predominately uses a non-metric system of measure, according to the CIA Factbook.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/appendix/print_appendix-g.html |title=The World Factbook, Appendix G: Weights and Measures |year=2010 |work=Web Pages |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency |accessdate=10 May 2010}}</ref> The common units of measure are unique to Burma but the Government web pages use both Imperial units<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.moai.gov.mm/index.php?option=com_content&view=category&layout=blog&id=16&Itemid=2 |title=Ministry of Agriculture and Information |date=2009-2010 |work=Web Page |publisher=Myanmar Agriculture |accessdate=10 May 2010}}</ref> and metric units.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mofa.gov.mm/aboutmyanmar/geography.html |title=About Myanmar : Geography |year=2009 |work=Web Page |publisher=Ministry of Foreign Affairs |accessdate=10 May 2010}}</ref>
==Demographics==
{{Main|Demographics of Burma|Ethnic groups in Burma}}
[[File:Downtownflatsyangon.jpg|thumb|left|A block of flats in down-town Yangon, facing [[Bogyoke Market]]. Much of Yangon's urban population resides in densely populated flats.]]
Burma has a population of about 56 million.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unescap.org/esid/psis/population/popin/profiles/myn.asp |title= POPULATION AND SOCIAL INTEGRATION SECTION (PSIS) |publisher=UN Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific }}</ref> Population figures are rough estimates because the last partial census, conducted by the Ministry of Home and Religious Affairs under the control of the military junta, was taken in 1983.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ibiblio.org/obl/docs/Considered_responses-2.pdf | title=Conflict and Displacement in Karenni: The Need for Considered Responses |accessdate=13 July 2006 |year=2000 | month=May | format=PDF |publisher=Burma Ethnic Research Group}}</ref> No trustworthy nationwide census has been taken in Burma since 1931. There are over 600,000 registered [[migrant worker]]s from Burma in [[Thailand]], and millions more work illegally. Burmese migrant workers account for 80% of Thailand's migrant workers.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://web.amnesty.org/library/index/ENGASA390012005 |title=Thailand: The Plight of Burmese Migrant Workers |accessdate=13 July 2006 |date=8 June 2006 |publisher=Amnesty International}}</ref> Burma has a [[population density]] of {{PD km2 to sq mi|75|precision=0|spell=UK}}, one of the lowest in [[Southeast Asia]]. Refugee camps exist along Indian, Bangladeshi and Thai borders while several thousand are in [[Malaysia]]. Conservative estimates state that there are over 295,800 refugees from Burma, with the majority being [[Rohingya]], [[Kayah State|Kayin]], and [[Karen people|Karenni]] and are principally located along the Thai-Burma border.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unhcr.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/publ/opendoc.pdf?tbl=PUBL&id=449676844 | title=Myanmar Refugees in South East Asia |accessdate=13 July 2006 |year=2006 | month=April | format=PDF |publisher=UNHCR}}</ref> There are nine permanent refugee camps along the Thai-Burma border, most of which were established in the mid-1980s. The refugee camps are under the care of the [http://www.tbbc.org/ Thai-Burma Border Consortium (TBBC)].
==Ethnic groups==
{{Main|Ethnic groups of Burma}}
{{bar box
|title=Ethnic Composition in Burma (rough estimate)
|titlebar=#ddd
|width=22%
|left1=ethnic group or race
|right1=percent
|float=left
|bars=
{{bar percent|[[Bamar]]|orange|68}}
{{bar percent|[[Shan]]|blue|9}}
{{bar percent|[[Karen people|Kayin]]|green|7}}
{{bar percent|Other groups|cyan|4.5}}
{{bar percent|[[Rakhine people|Rakhine]]|yellow|3.5}}
{{bar percent|[[Burmese Chinese|Chinese]]|purple|2.5}}
{{bar percent|[[Mon people|Mon]]|red|2}}
{{bar percent|[[Jingpo|Kachin]]|black|1.5}}
{{bar percent|[[Chin]]|brown|1}}
{{bar percent|[[Burmese Indians|Indians]]|violet|1.25}}
{{bar percent|[[Karenni|Kayah]]|lime|0.75}}
}}
[[File:Karen Padaung Girl Portrait.jpg|thumb|A girl from the [[Kayan (Burma)|Padaung]] minority, one of the many ethnic groups that make up Burma's population.]]
Burma is home to four major linguistic families: [[Sino-Tibetan languages|Sino-Tibetan]], [[Kradai languages|Kradai]], [[Austro-Asiatic languages|Austro-Asiatic]], and [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=MM |title=Languages of Myanmar |accessdate=14 July 2006 |last=Gordon |first=Raymond G., Jr. |year=2005 |publisher=SIL International}}</ref> Sino-Tibetan languages are most widely spoken. They include [[Burmese language|Burmese]], [[Karen people|Karen]], [[Jingpo|Kachin]], [[Chin people|Chin]], and Chinese. The primary Kradai language is [[Shan language|Shan]]. [[Mon language|Mon]], [[Palaung]], and [[Va people|Wa]] are the major [[Austroasiatic]] languages spoken in Burma. The two major Indo-European languages are [[Pāli|Pali]], the liturgical language of Theravada Buddhism, and English.<ref name="ethno">{{cite web|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/show_family.asp?subid=90150 |title=Language Family Trees: Sino-Tibetan |accessdate=9 July 2006 |last=Gordon |first=Raymond G., Jr. |year=2005 |work=Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Fifteenth edition |publisher=SIL International}}</ref>
According to the [[UNESCO]] Institute of Statistics, Burma's official [[literacy rate]] as of 2000 was 89.9%.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.uis.unesco.org/TEMPLATE/html/Exceltables/education/Literacy_Regional_April2006.xls |title=Adult (15+) Literacy Rates and Illiterate Population by Region and Gender for |accessdate=13 July 2006 |year=2006 |month=April |format=XLS |publisher=UNESCO Institute of Statistics}}</ref> Historically, Burma has had high literacy rates. To qualify for [[least developed country]] status by the UN in order to receive debt relief, Burma lowered its official literacy rate from 78.6% to 18.7% in 1987.<ref>{{cite book | editor=Robert I Rotberg | year=1998 | title=Burma: Prospects for a Democratic Future }}</ref>
Burma is ethnically diverse. The government recognises [[List of ethnic groups in Myanmar|135 distinct ethnic groups]]. While it is extremely difficult to verify this statement, there are at least 108 different ethnolinguistic groups in Burma, consisting mainly of distinct Tibeto-Burman peoples, but with sizeable populations of Daic, Hmong-Mien, and Austroasiatic (Mon-Khmer) peoples.<ref name="ethnologue_myanmar">{{cite web|url=http://www.ethnologue.com/show_country.asp?name=MM |title=Languages of Myanmar |accessdate=13 January 2007 |last=Gordon |first=Raymond G., Jr. |year=2005 |work=Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Fifteenth edition |publisher=SIL International}}</ref> The [[Bamar]] form an estimated 68% of the population.<ref name="statedept">{{cite web |url=http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/35910.htm |title=Background Note: Burma |accessdate = 7 July 2006 |year=2005 |month=August |work=[[Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs]] |publisher=[[U.S. Department of State]]}}</ref> 10% of the population are [[Shan]].<ref name="statedept"/> The [[Karen people|Kayin]] make up 7% of the population.<ref name="statedept"/> The [[Rakhine people]] constitute 4% of the population. [[Burmese Chinese|Overseas Chinese]] form approximately 3% of the population.<ref name="statedept"/><ref>{{cite book | author=Mya Than | editor=Leo Suryadinata | year=1997 | title=Ethnic Chinese As Southeast Asians | id=ISBN}}</ref> Burma's ethnic minority groups prefer the term "ethnic nationality" over "ethnic minority" as the term "minority" furthers their sense of insecurity in the face of what is often described as "Burmanisation"--the proliferation and domination of the dominant Bamar culture over minority cultures.
[[Mon people|Mon]], who form 2% of the population, are ethno-linguistically related to the [[Khmer people|Khmer]].<ref name="statedept"/> [[Burmese Indians|Overseas Indians]] comprise 2%.<ref name="statedept"/> The remainder are [[Jingpo|Kachin]], [[Chin people|Chin]], [[Anglo-Indian]]s and other ethnic minorities. Included in this group are the [[Anglo-Burmese]]. Once forming a large and influential community, the Anglo-Burmese left the country in steady streams from 1958 onwards, principally to Australia and the U.K.. Today, it is estimated that only 52,000 Anglo-Burmese remain in the country. There are 110,000 Myanmarian [[refugee]]s in Thai border camps.<ref>[http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi-bin/nn20090218f1.html Myanmar refugees to try resettling]. The Japan Times Online. 18 February 2009.</ref>
89% of the country's population are Buddhist, according to a report on ABC World News Tonight in May 2008{{Citation needed|date=July 2010}}.
==Culture==
{{Main|Culture of Burma}}
[[File:Earpiercingceremony.jpg|thumb|An ear-piercing ceremony at the Mahamuni Pagoda in [[Mandalay]] is one of the many coming-of-age ceremonies in Burmese culture.]]
A diverse range of indigenous cultures exist in Burma, the majority culture is primarily [[Buddhism in Burma|Buddhist]] and [[Bamar]]. Bamar culture has been influenced by the cultures of neighbouring countries. This is manifested in its language, cuisine, music, dance and theatre. The arts, particularly literature, have historically been influenced by the local form of [[Theravada]] [[Buddhism]]. Considered the national epic of Burma, the ''[[Yama Zatdaw]]'', an adaptation of ''[[Ramayana]]'', has been influenced greatly by [[Thailand|Thai]], [[Mon people|Mon]], and [[Republic of India|Indian]] versions of the play.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.goldenlandpages.com/hotspots/rama/rama.htm |title=Ramayana in Myanmar's heart |accessdate=13 July 2006 |date=13 September 2003 |publisher=Goldenland Pages}}</ref> Buddhism is practised along with [[nat (spirit)|nat worship]] which involves elaborate rituals to propitiate one from a pantheon of 37 nats.<ref>{{cite book | first=R.C. | last=Temple| year=1906 | title=The Thirty-seven Nats-A Phase of Spirit-Worship prevailing in Burma}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://myanmartravelinformation.com/mti-myanmar-religion/nats.htm|title=The Worshipping of Nats – The Special Festival of Mount Popa}}</ref>
[[File:IMG Mohinga.JPG|thumb|left|[[Mohinga]], rice noodles in fish soup, is widely considered to be Burma's national dish.]]
In a traditional village, the monastery is the centre of cultural life. Monks are venerated and supported by the lay people. A novitiation ceremony called [[shinbyu]] is the most important [[coming of age]] events for a boy when he enters the monastery for a short period of time.<ref name="kmc">{{cite book | author=Khin Myo Chit | authorlink=Khin Myo Chit | year=1980 | title=Flowers and Festivals Round the Burmese Year }}</ref> All boys of Buddhist family need to be a novice (beginner for Buddhism) before the age of twenty and to be a monk after the age of twenty. It is compulsory for all boys of Buddhism. The duration can be as little as one week. Girls have ear-piercing ceremonies ([[File:Nathwin.gif]]) at the same time.<ref name="kmc" /> Burmese culture is most evident in villages where local festivals are held throughout the year, the most important being the pagoda festival.<ref name="Myam-ma">{{cite book | author=Tsaya | year=1886 | title=Myam-ma, the home of the Burman | publisher =Thacker, Spink and Co. | location =Calcutta | pages = 36–37 }}</ref><ref name="sy">{{cite book|author=Shway Yoe|year=1882|title=The Burman – His Life and Notions|publisher=Norton Library 1963|location=New York|pages=211–216, 317–319}}</ref> Many villages have a guardian nat, and superstition and taboos are commonplace.
British colonial rule also introduced Western elements of culture to Burma. Burma's educational system is modelled after that of the United Kingdom. Colonial architectural influences are most evident in major cities such as [[Yangon]].<ref>{{cite news | first =Steven | last =Martin | url =http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/3578993.stm | title =Burma maintains bygone buildings | publisher =BBC News |date= March 2004 | accessdate =9 July 2006 }}</ref> Many ethnic minorities, particularly the [[Karen people|Karen]] in the southeast, and the [[Kachin]] and [[Chin (people)]] who populate the north and north-east, practice [[Christianity]].<ref>{{cite book|url=http://www.archive.org/details/TheSilkenEast|title=The Silken East – A Record of Life and Travel in Burma|first=V. C.|last=Scott O'Connor|year=1904|publisher=Kiscadale|location= Scotland 1993|page=32}}</ref> According to CIA World Factbook, the Burman population is 68%, and the Ethnic groups comprise of 32%. However, the exiled leaders and organisations claims that Ethnic population is 40% which is implicitly contrasted with CIA report (official U.S report).
[[File:Young monk.jpg|thumb|Members of the [[Sangha|Buddhist monkhood]] are venerated throughout Burma, which is one of the most predominantly [[Theravada|Theravada Buddhist]] countries in the world.]]
===Language===
{{Main|Languages of Burma}}
[[Burmese language|Burmese]], the mother tongue of the Bamar and official language of Burma, is related to [[Tibetan language|Tibetan]] and to the [[Chinese language]]s.<ref name="ethno"/> It is written in a [[Burmese script|script]] consisting of circular and semi-circular letters, which were adapted from the [[Mon language|Mon script]], which in turn was developed from a southern Indian script in the 8th century. The earliest known inscriptions in the Burmese script date from the 11th century. It is also used to write [[Pāli|Pali]], the sacred language of [[Theravada Buddhism]], as well as several ethnic minority languages, including Shan, several Karen dialects, and Kayah (Karenni), with the addition of specialised characters and [[diacritic]]s for each language.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://lwinmoe.friendsofburma.org/doc/myanmar_extension.pdf |title=Proposal for encoding characters for Myanmar minority languages in the UCS |accessdate=9 July 2006 |date=2 April 2006 |format=PDF |publisher=International Organization for Standardization}}</ref> The Burmese language incorporates widespread usage of [[honorific]]s and is age-oriented.<ref name="Myam-ma" /> Burmese society has traditionally stressed the importance of education. In villages, secular schooling often takes place in [[monastery|monasteries]]. [[Secondary education|Secondary]] and [[tertiary education]] take place at government schools.
===Religion===
{{Main|Religion in Burma|Buddhism in Burma|Hinduism in Burma|Christianity in Burma|Islam in Burma|History of the Jews in Burma}}
{{bar box
|title=Religion in Burma
|titlebar=#ddd
|width=22%
|left1=religion
|right1=percent
|float=left
|bars=
{{bar percent|[[Buddhism]]|yellow|89}}
{{bar percent|[[Christianity]]|blue|4}}
{{bar percent|[[Islam]]|green|4}}
{{bar percent|Others including [[Animism]] and [[Chinese folk religion]]|purple|2}}
{{bar percent|[[Hinduism]]|black|1}}
}}
Many religions are practised in Burma. Religious edifices and orders have been in existence for many years. Festivals can be held on a grand scale. The Christian and Muslim populations do, however, face religious persecution and it is hard, if not impossible, for non-Buddhists to join the army or get government jobs, the main route to success in the country.<ref>"Ethnic and Religious Diversity: Myanmar's Unfolding Nemesis", Matthews, Bruce, Institute of South East Asian Studies, Visiting Researcher Series, Volume 2001, No. 3. 2001.</ref> Such persecution and targeting of civilians is particularly notable in Eastern Burma, where over 3000 villages have been destroyed in the past ten years.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://tbbc.org/resources.html#reports |title=Internal Displacement in Eastern Burma 2006 Survey | accessdate=4 February 2007 | author=Thailand Burma Border Consortium | year=2007}}{{Dead link|date=July 2009}}</ref><ref name=priestly>{{cite news |first=Harry |last=Priestly |url=http://www.irrawaddy.org/article.php?art_id=5380 |title=The Outsiders |publisher=[[The Irrawaddy]] |date=17 January 2006 |accessdate=7 July 2006}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://isrc.payap.ac.th/document/papers/paper23.pdf |title=The Encounter of Missionary Christianity and Resurgent Buddhism in Post-colonial Myanmar |accessdate=14 July 2006 |author=Samuel Ngun Ling |year=2003 |format=PDF |publisher=Payap University }}{{Dead link|date=July 2009}}</ref> More than 200,000 [[Rohingya]] Muslims have settled in Bangladesh, to escape persecution, over the past 20 years.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/7019882.stm Burmese exiles in desperate conditions]. BBC News. 29 September 2007.</ref>
89% of the population embraces [[Buddhism]] (mostly [[Theravada]]). Other religions are practiced largely without obstruction, with the notable exception of some ethnic minorities such as the Muslim [[Rohingya people]], who have continued to have their citizenship status denied and therefore do not have access to education, and Christians in Chin State.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2007/90131.htm |title=Burma-International Religious Freedom Report 2007 |publisher=U.S. Department of State}}</ref> Four percent of the population practices [[Christianity]]; 4 percent, [[Islam]]; 1 percent, traditional [[animism|animistic]] beliefs; and 2 percent follow other religions, including [[Mahayana Buddhism]], [[Hinduism]], [[Chinese religions]] and the [[Bahá'í Faith|Bahá'í religion]].<ref>[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/bm.html#People CIA Factbook – Burma]</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2007/90131.htm |title=International Religious Freedom Report 2007 – Burma |publisher=State.gov |date= |accessdate=17 April 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/35910.htm |title=Bureau of East Asian and Pacific Affairs – Background Note: Burma |publisher=State.gov |date= |accessdate=17 April 2010}}</ref> However, according to a [[U.S. State Department]]'s 2006 international religious freedom report, official statistics underestimate the non-Buddhist population which could be as high as 30%. Muslim leaders estimated that approximately 20 percent of the population was Muslim. A tiny Jewish community in Rangoon had a synagogue but no resident rabbi to conduct services.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71335.htm |title=Burma—International Religious Freedom Report 2006 |publisher=U.S. Department of State |date=15 September 2006 |accessdate=25 September 2007}}</ref>
===Education===
{{Main|Education in Burma}}
[[File:MCbuilding.jpg|thumb|[[Yangon University of Medicine 1]]]]
The educational system of Burma is operated by the government Ministry of Education. Universities and professional institutes from upper Burma and lower Burma are run by two separate entities, the Department of Higher Education of Upper Burma and the Department of Higher Education of Lower Burma. Headquarters are based in Yangon and Mandalay respectively. The education system is based on the United Kingdom's system, due to nearly a century of British and Christian presences in Burma. Nearly all schools are government-operated, but there has been a recent increase in privately funded English language schools. Schooling is compulsory until the end of elementary school, probably about 9 years old, while the compulsory schooling age is 15 or 16 at international level.
There are 101 universities, 12 institutes, 9 degree colleges and 24 colleges in Burma, a total of 146 higher education institutions.<ref>Chronicle of National Development Comparison Between Period Preceding 1988 and after (up to 31.12.2006)</ref>
There are 10 Technical Training Schools, 23 nursing training schools, 1 sport academy and 20 midwifery schools.
There are 2047 Basic Education High Schools, 2605 Basic Education Middle Schools, 29944 Basic Education Primary Schools and 5952 Post Primary Schools. 1692 multimedia classrooms exist within this system.
There are four international schools which are acknowledged by WASC and College Board – [[The International School Yangon]] (ISY), [[Crane International School Yangon]] (CISM), [[Yangon International School]] (YIS) and [[Yangon International Educare Center|International School of Myanmar]] (ISM) in Yangon.
{{Clear}}
==Media==
[[Image:Blethrow Inle3.JPG|thumb|250px|Stilt houses at Lake Inle, Myanmar]]
{{Main|Media of Burma}}
Due to Burma's political climate, there are not many media companies in relation to the country's population, although a certain number exists. Some are privately owned, but all programming must meet with the approval of the [[censorship]] board.
Burma has figured in several motion pictures, such as ''[[Beyond Rangoon]]'', starring [[Patricia Arquette]], ''[[Rambo IV]]'', starring [[Sylvester Stallone]] and ''[[Objective, Burma!]]'', nominated for an Academy Award and starring [[Errol Flynn]]. Burma was also featured in the hit show ''[[Seinfeld]]''. Burma is the primary subject of a 2007 graphic novel titled ''[[Chroniques Birmanes]]'' by [[Québécois]] author and animator, [[Guy Delisle]]. The graphic novel was translated into English under the title ''[[Burma Chronicles]]'' in 2008. In 2009, a documentary about Burmese [[videojournalist]]s called ''[[Burma VJ]]'' was released.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://burmavjmovie.com/ |title=Burma VJ – Academy Award Nominee – Best Documentary Feature |publisher=Burmavjmovie.com |date= |accessdate=17 April 2010}}</ref> This film was nominated for [[Academy Award for Best Documentary Feature|Best Documentary Feature]] at the [[82nd Academy Awards|2010 Academy Awards]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://dannyfisher.org/2010/02/02/burma-vj-nominated-for-a-2010-academy-award-for-best-documentary-feature/ |title=Burma VJ Nominated for the 2010 Academy Award for Best Documentary Feature « Rev. Danny Fisher |publisher=Dannyfisher.org |date=2 February 2010 |accessdate=17 April 2010}}</ref>
==See also==
{{Main|Outline of Burma}}
* [[Index of Burma-related articles]]
==Notes==
{{Reflist|2}}
==External links==
{{Sister project links}}
{{Wikinews}}
; Government
*[http://www.myanmar.gov.mm/ myanmar.gov.mm]
*[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/world-leaders-1/world-leaders-b/burma.html Chief of State and Cabinet Members]
; General information
*{{CIA World Factbook link|bm|Burma}}
*[http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/myanmar.htm Burma] from ''UCB Libraries GovPubs''
*{{wikiatlas|Myanmar}}
*{{Wikitravel|Myanmar}}
*[http://www.burmalibrary.org/ Online Burma/Myanmar Library: Classified and annotated links to more than 17,000 full-text documents on Burma/Myanmar]
*[http://www.myanma.com/ Burmese/Myanmar Myanma Search Engine Web site]
*[http://my.wikipedia.org/ Official Burmese Language Wikipedia Web site]
*[http://www.pbs.org/wnet/wideangle/episodes/eyes-of-the-storm/turning-points-in-burmese-history/5363/ Interactive timeline of turning points in Burmese history]
{{Burma (Myanmar) topics}}
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